@article {12039, title = {Effects of Stress Exposure Versus Appraisal on Episodic Memory Trajectories: Evidence for Risk and Resilience among Black Older Adults.}, journal = {The Journals of Gerontology, Series B }, volume = {77}, year = {2022}, pages = {2148-2155}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: Chronic stressors, experienced disproportionately by Black older adults, are a risk factor for memory impairment. Racially patterned stress exposure may contribute to higher rates of Alzheimer{\textquoteright}s disease and related dementias (ADRD) among Black older adults compared with Whites, but less is known about the role of stress appraisal. This study examined whether chronic stress exposure mediates racial disparities in memory and whether stress appraisal moderates these associations.

METHODS: Participants included 16,924 older adults (Mage= 67.39, 21\% Black) from the 2010 and 2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study who completed measures of chronic stress exposure (health, financial, housing, relationships, and caregiving) and appraisal. Latent growth curves modeled longitudinal performance on a word list memory task over six years.

RESULTS: Black older adults reported greater stress exposure than Whites, and greater stress exposure partially mediated Black-White disparities in initial memory (standardized indirect effect=-.002, p=.009). However, Black older adults appraised stressors as less upsetting than Whites. While stress appraisal did not moderate links between stress exposure and memory, appraising stressors as less upsetting was independently associated with better initial memory. Thus, Black-White disparities in initial memory was partially offset by Blacks participants{\textquoteright} appraisal of stressors as less upsetting (standardized indirect effect=.002, p=.016).

DISCUSSION: Reducing chronic stress exposure may reduce racial disparities in ADRD risk. The counteractive effect of stress appraisal on Black-White disparities in episodic memory highlights resilience factors among Black older adults that should be characterized in future research to move beyond deficit models of ADRD inequality.

}, keywords = {Black/African American, Episodic Memory, Racial differences, stress appraisa}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbab225}, author = {Morris, Emily P and Lauren L Brown and Afsara B. Zaheed and Palms, Jordan D and Sol, Ketlyne and Martino, Alexa and Laura B Zahodne} } @article {11110, title = {Physical Activity in Early- and Mid-Adulthood are Associated with Longitudinal Memory Trajectories in Later-Life.}, journal = {Journal of Gerontology: Series A }, volume = {76}, year = {2021}, pages = {1495-1503}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND: Physical activity (PA) in later-life may reduce dementia risk, but little is known regarding long-term cognitive effects of PA that occurred earlier in adulthood or mechanisms underlying associations. PA patterns at different ages may independently contribute to dementia risk, which would implicate multiple critical periods for intervention. The current study tested whether retrospective reports of PA in early- and mid-adulthood were independently associated with later-life longitudinal memory outcomes and whether associations were mediated by late-life cardiometabolic diseases.

METHODS: Participants comprised 5,200 Health and Retirement Study Life History Mail Survey respondents. Latent growth curves estimated independent associations between retrospectively reported PA in early-adulthood (age 18-29) and mid-adulthood (age 40-49) and 16-year episodic memory trajectories. Indirect pathways involving the maintenance of PA from early- to mid-adulthood and the influence of PA on later-life cardiometabolic diseases (hypertension, diabetes, and heart disease) were also estimated.

RESULTS: PA in early- and mid-adulthood independently predicted higher initial memory level and slower memory decline in later-life, respectively. Early-adulthood PA was indirectly associated with later-life memory level through higher mid-adulthood PA and lower rates of later-life hypertension, as well as with subsequent memory decline through higher mid-adulthood PA.

CONCLUSIONS: The current findings highlight the importance of PA throughout adulthood, such that initiating and/or maintaining exercise in early- or mid-adulthood may be protective for later-life cognitive health, and hypertension appears to represent a key mediator of these effects.

}, keywords = {cognitive aging, Exercise, Hypertension, Resilience}, issn = {1758-535X}, doi = {10.1093/gerona/glaa252}, author = {A Zarina Kraal and Dotterer, Hailey L and Sharifian, Neika and Morris, Emily P and Sol, Ketlyne and Zaheed, Afara B and Jacqui Smith and Laura B Zahodne} } @article {11640, title = {Subjective age, depressive symptoms, and cognitive functioning across five domains.}, journal = {Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology}, volume = {43}, year = {2021}, pages = {310-323}, abstract = {

: Younger subjective age predicts better episodic memory and executive functioning performance independent of chronological age. This study examined whether subjective age is associated with performance in five cognitive domains, quantified the extent to which these relationships are mediated by depressive symptoms, and tested whether these associations are moderated by chronological age. Participants in this cross-sectional study included 993 adults aged 65 and older from the Health and Retirement Study{\textquoteright}s 2016 Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol. Moderated mediation models estimated direct and indirect effects of subjective age on factor scores representing episodic memory, executive functioning, language, visuoconstruction, and speed through depressive symptoms and tested whether associations differed according to chronological age. Depressive symptoms explained 21-32\% of the associations between subjective age and language, speed, episodic memory, and executive functioning. Chronological age moderated the indirect effect involving language, such that depressive symptoms were more strongly related to worse language performance at older chronological ages. After accounting for indirect effects, direct effects of younger subjective age remained for language and speed domains. This study extends research on the cognitive correlates of subjective age and demonstrates that depressive symptoms partly mediate these relationships. Subjective age may bemost strongly associated with language among individuals at older chronological ages not because they are more sensitive to the negative mental health impact of feeling older than they are but because they may be particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of depressive symptoms on language ability. Additional longitudinal research is needed to determine whether links between subjective age and cognition are causal versus predictive.

}, keywords = {Cognition, cognitive aging, Depressive symptoms, HCAP, Subjective age}, issn = {1744-411X}, doi = {10.1080/13803395.2021.1926436}, author = {Morris, Emily P and Afsara B. Zaheed and Sharifian, Neika and Sol, Ketlyne and A Zarina Kraal and Laura B Zahodne} } @article {10970, title = {Everyday discrimination and subsequent cognitive abilities across five domains.}, journal = {Neuropsychology}, year = {2020}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: Previous research suggests that everyday discrimination is associated with worse concomitant performance in several cognitive domains, as well as faster subsequent declines in episodic memory. This study aimed to extend knowledge on the specificity, durability, and mechanisms of associations between everyday discrimination and cognition by using a comprehensive neuropsychological battery and a longitudinal mediation design.

METHOD: Participants included 3,304 older adults in the Health and Retirement Study Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol. Discrimination was assessed using the Everyday Discrimination Scale. Depressive symptoms were assessed with the 8-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. Vascular diseases were quantified as the self-reported presence of hypertension, diabetes, and heart disease. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to estimate episodic memory, executive functioning, processing speed, language, and visuoconstruction across a battery of 13 neuropsychological tests. Structural equation models controlled for sociodemographics and baseline cognition ascertained 2 to 4 years prior.

RESULTS: Discrimination was associated with more depressive symptoms and vascular diseases. Depressive symptoms mediated negative effects of discrimination on subsequent functioning across all 5 cognitive domains. Vascular diseases additionally mediated negative effects of discrimination on processing speed. After accounting for mediators, direct negative effects of discrimination remained for executive functioning and visuoconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS: This national longitudinal study in the United States provides evidence for broad and enduring effects of everyday discrimination on cognitive aging, which appear to be partially mediated by mental and physical health. Future research should examine additional mechanisms as well as moderators of these associations to better understand points of intervention. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

}, keywords = {Depressive symptoms, Discrimination, HCAP, vascular diseases}, issn = {1931-1559}, doi = {10.1037/neu0000693}, author = {Laura B Zahodne and Morris, Emily P and Sharifian, Neika and Afsara B. Zaheed and A Zarina Kraal and Sol, Ketlyne} } @article {10928, title = {The Impact of Region and Urbanicity on the Discrimination-Cognitive Health Link Among Older Blacks}, journal = {Research in Human Development}, volume = {17}, year = {2020}, pages = {4 - 19}, abstract = {Little research has examined how the link between discrimination and cognitive health varies by where people live. This study investigates how living in non-urban versus urban areas in different regions in the United States moderates the discrimination-cognitive health link among older non-Hispanic Blacks. Data are from the 2012 and 2014 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; N = 2,347). Regression analyses indicate that experiencing more everyday discrimination is significantly associated with lower episodic memory when living in urban areas. Among non-Hispanic Blacks, the discrimination-episodic memory link does not significantly vary across U.S. regional contexts. Findings highlight variation in the association between everyday discrimination and cognitive health by where older non-Hispanic Blacks live. Results suggest the importance of socio-environmental factors in shaping how stressful experiences such as discrimination are linked to cognitive health in later life.}, keywords = {Cognitive health, Discrimination, non-urban versus urban areas}, isbn = {1542-7609}, doi = {10.1080/15427609.2020.1746614}, author = {Kimson E Johnson and Sol, Ketlyne and Sprague, Briana N. and Tamara J. Cadet and Mu{\~n}oz, Elizabeth and Noah J Webster} } @article {10127, title = {Dimensions of religious involvement represent positive pathways in cognitive aging.}, journal = {Research on Aging}, year = {2019}, abstract = {Older Black and Hispanic adults report more religious involvement, and religious involvement has been linked to better cognition. This study examined which aspects of religious involvement are associated with better longitudinal episodic memory and whether religious involvement offsets racial and ethnic inequalities in episodic memory. Using Health and Retirement Study data ( = 16,069), latent growth curves estimated independent indirect pathways between race and ethnicity and 6-year memory trajectories through religious attendance, private prayer, and religious belief, controlling for nonreligious social participation, depressive symptoms, chronic health diseases, age, education, and wealth. Negative direct effects of Black race and Hispanic ethnicity on memory were partially offset by positive indirect pathways through more private prayer and religious attendance. While results were significant for memory intercept and not subsequent memory change, religious attendance and private prayer were independently associated with better cognitive health among diverse older adults. Findings may inform culturally relevant intervention development to promote successful aging and reduce older adults{\textquoteright} cognitive morbidity.}, keywords = {undefined}, issn = {1552-7573}, doi = {10.1177/0164027519862745}, author = {A Zarina Kraal and Sharifian, Neika and Afsara B. Zaheed and Sol, Ketlyne and Laura B Zahodne} } @article {9946, title = {Inflammatory mechanisms underlying the effects of everyday discrimination on age-related memory decline.}, journal = {Brain, Behavior \& Immunity}, volume = {75}, year = {2019}, month = {2019 Jan}, pages = {149-154}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Previous research suggests that everyday discrimination is associated with worse episodic memory and partially mediates Black-White disparities in memory aging. The biological mechanisms underlying the link between everyday discrimination and memory are unclear but may involve inflammatory processes. This study aimed to determine whether systemic inflammation, indexed by blood levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), mediates associations between everyday discrimination and episodic memory over 6 years.

DESIGN: A longitudinal mediation model quantified associations between baseline everyday discrimination, 4-year change in CRP, and 6-year change in episodic memory.

SETTING: The Health and Retirement Study (HRS).

PARTICIPANTS: 12,624 HRS participants aged 51 and older.

MEASUREMENTS: Everyday Discrimination Scale, high-sensitivity CRP assays of dried blood spots, composite scores of immediate and delayed recall of a word list.

RESULTS: Black participants reported greater everyday discrimination. Greater discrimination was associated with lower baseline memory and faster memory decline. Higher CRP at baseline partially mediated the negative association between discrimination and baseline memory, but CRP change did not mediate the association between discrimination and memory decline.

CONCLUSION: This U.S.-representative longitudinal study provides evidence for deleterious effects of discrimination on subsequent episodic memory. The fact that elevated CRP only partially explained the concurrent association between discrimination and memory highlights the need for more comprehensive investigations of biological mechanisms underlying the link between social stress and age-related memory decline in order to better characterize potential intervention targets to reduce racial inequalities in memory aging.

}, keywords = {Ageism, C-reactive protein, Discrimination, Inflammation, Memory}, issn = {1090-2139}, doi = {10.1016/j.bbi.2018.10.002}, author = {Laura B Zahodne and A Zarina Kraal and Sharifian, Neika and Afsara B. Zaheed and Sol, Ketlyne} } @article {10204, title = {The longitudinal association between social network composition and episodic memory in older adulthood: the importance of contact frequency with friends}, journal = {Aging \& Mental Health}, year = {2019}, note = {doi: 10.1080/13607863.2019.1660850}, month = {09/2019}, pages = {1 - 7}, abstract = {Objectives: The composition of one{\textquoteright}s social network has been associated with cognition such that a greater proportion of family is associated with worse cognition compared to a greater proportion of friends. It is not clear whether this association between network composition and cognitive aging is driven by potential negative effects of family interactions or positive effects of friend interactions. Methods: Using the Health and Retirement Study (T1: 2006/2008, T2: 2010/2012, T3: 2012/2014), a longitudinal mediation model was conducted to test the effects of composition on episodic memory and latent change in memory through contact frequency with friends and family. Results: Analyses revealed indirect effects of composition on both T2 memory and latent change in memory through contact frequency with friends. A greater proportion of family in one{\textquoteright}s network was associated with lower contact frequency with friends and in turn lower memory. Composition was also associated with higher contact frequency with family; however, contact frequency with family was not associated with memory. Conclusions: These findings suggest that spending time with family may not affect episodic memory in older adulthood, but spending time with friends may be beneficial. Potential mechanisms and implications regarding the importance of friendships in later life are discussed.}, keywords = {cognitive aging, contact frequency, Social networks}, isbn = {1360-7863}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1660850}, author = {Sharifian, Neika and A Zarina Kraal and Afsara B. Zaheed and Sol, Ketlyne and Laura B Zahodne} } @article {10111, title = {Longitudinal effects of race, ethnicity, and psychosocial disadvantage on systemic inflammation.}, journal = {SSM Population Health}, volume = {7}, year = {2019}, month = {2019 Apr}, pages = {100391}, abstract = {

Objective: Psychosocial factors likely contribute to racial and ethnic inequalities in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). However, precise social, psychological, and physiological pathways linking race and ethnicity to the development of CVDs are not well understood. Systemic inflammation, commonly indexed by C-reactive protein (CRP), is a biomarker for CVD risk and progression. The objective of this study was to identify mediating pathways from race and ethnicity to CRP through social, psychological, and behavioral variables.

Methods: Using data from 12,382 participants aged 51 and older in the Health and Retirement Study, structural equation models tested for direct and indirect effects of race and ethnicity on CRP measured over four years through educational disadvantage, everyday discrimination, depressive symptoms, external locus of control, and smoking.

Results: Educational disadvantage mediated Black-White and Hispanic-White disparities in baseline CRP directly, as well as indirectly through elevated depressive symptoms, higher external locus of control, and smoking. Educational disadvantage also mediated Black-White and Hispanic-White disparities in CRP change directly, as well as indirectly through higher external locus of control and smoking. Independent of education, discrimination mediated Black-White differences in baseline CRP via elevated depressive symptoms, higher external locus of control, and smoking. Discrimination also mediated Black-White disparities in CRP change via external locus of control.

Conclusions: Results from this population-based, longitudinal study support the view that racially patterned social disadvantage is prospectively associated with longitudinal inflammatory processes, and some of these effects are independently mediated by psychological and behavioral factors. Biopsychosocial pathways to health disparities also differ between minority groups.

}, keywords = {Inflammation, Psychosocial, Racial/ethnic differences}, issn = {2352-8273}, doi = {10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100391}, author = {Laura B Zahodne and A Zarina Kraal and Afsara B. Zaheed and Farris, Penelope and Sol, Ketlyne} } @article {10205, title = {Longitudinal socioemotional pathways between retrospective early life maternal relationship quality and episodic memory in older adulthood.}, journal = {Developmental Psychology}, year = {2019}, month = {2019 Aug 22}, abstract = {

Prior research suggests that social relations may play a role in explaining individual differences in cognitive functioning in older adulthood. In particular, early life maternal relationship quality (MRQ) has been shown to be a strong predictor of later-life socioemotional outcomes and may also contribute to later-life cognitive outcomes. The current study aimed to examine longitudinal associations between retrospective early life MRQ and later-life episodic memory directly and indirectly through socioemotional pathways. Three waves of data spanning 6 years of the Health and Retirement Study were used (T1: 2008, T2: 2012, T3: 2014; n = 5,263, M = 69.31, SD = 10.75 at T1). A longitudinal mediation model tested the direct and indirect effects of retrospectively reported MRQ at T1 on T2 memory and latent change in memory from T2 to T3 through depressive symptoms, social network size, and loneliness at T2. Analyses revealed that better MRQ at T1 was associated with less loneliness and fewer depressive symptoms at T2, and in turn, each was independently associated with less decline in memory from T2 to T3. Overall, findings suggest an enduring effect of early life social experiences on later-life cognitive functioning through socioemotional pathways. These findings further highlight the necessity of taking an integrative and life course perspective when examining the relationship between social relations and cognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

}, keywords = {Cognitive Science, Episodic Memory, Maternal Relationship}, issn = {1939-0599}, doi = {10.1037/dev0000805}, url = {https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31436459}, author = {Sharifian, Neika and A Zarina Kraal and Afsara B. Zaheed and Sol, Ketlyne and Laura B Zahodne} } @article {9362, title = {Psychosocial Pathways to Racial/Ethnic Inequalities in Late-Life Memory Trajectories.}, journal = {Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences \& Social Sciences}, volume = {74}, year = {2019}, pages = {409-418}, abstract = {

Objectives: Blacks and Hispanics are at increased risk for dementia, even after socioeconomic and vascular factors are taken into account. This study tests a comprehensive model of psychosocial pathways leading to differences in longitudinal cognitive outcomes among older blacks and Hispanics, compared to non-Hispanic whites.

Methods: Using data from 10,173 participants aged 65 and older in the Health and Retirement Study, structural equation models tested associations among race/ethnicity, perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, external locus of control, and 6-year memory trajectories, controlling for age, sex, educational attainment, income, wealth, and chronic diseases.

Results: Greater perceived discrimination among blacks was associated with lower initial memory level via depressive symptoms and external locus of control, and with faster memory decline directly. Greater depressive symptoms and external locus of control among Hispanics were each independently associated with lower initial memory, but there were no pathways from Hispanic ethnicity to memory decline.

Discussion: Depression and external locus of control partially mediate racial/ethnic differences in memory trajectories. Perceived discrimination is a major driver of these psychosocial pathways for blacks, but not Hispanics. These results can inform the development of policies and interventions to reduce cognitive morbidity among racially/ethnically diverse older adults.

}, keywords = {Cognitive Ability, Inequality, Memory, Psychosocial, Racial/ethnic differences}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbx113}, author = {Laura B Zahodne and Sol, Ketlyne and A Zarina Kraal} } @article {10085, title = {Unique effects of perceived neighborhood physical disorder and social cohesion on episodic memory and semantic fluency.}, journal = {Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology}, year = {2019}, abstract = {

Objective: Objective measures of neighborhood quality are associated with physical and mental health outcomes for older adults, but the relationship between perceived neighborhood quality and cognitive health has not been fully explored. Furthermore, positive and negative neighborhood characteristics may influence cognition through different mechanisms. The present study aimed to determine whether perceptions of neighborhood quality predict cognitive functioning in two domains, above and beyond individual-level risk factors, in a nationally representative sample of older adults.

Method: Using cross-sectional weighted data from 13,919 participants aged 51 and older from the Health and Retirement Study, linear regression models tested independent associations between perceived neighborhood quality (physical disorder and social cohesion) and cognition (episodic memory and semantic verbal fluency), controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, chronic disease burden, and depressive symptoms. Interaction terms tested whether neighborhood social cohesion moderated the relationship between neighborhood physical disorder and each cognitive outcome.

Results: Perception of greater neighborhood physical disorder was significantly associated with worse episodic memory, while perception of lower neighborhood social cohesion was significantly associated with worse semantic fluency. There were no significant interactions between physical disorder and social cohesion.

Conclusions: Results provide preliminary evidence for different mechanisms underlying associations between aspects of neighborhood quality and cognition (e.g., stress vs. social interaction). Additional intervention work is needed to determine whether improving neighborhood physical conditions and promoting social cohesion at the neighborhood level could reduce cognitive morbidity among older adults.

}, keywords = {Memory, Neighborhoods, Perception, Social Support}, issn = {1873-5843}, doi = {10.1093/arclin/acy098}, author = {Afsara B. Zaheed and Sharifian, Neika and A Zarina Kraal and Sol, Ketlyne and Hence, Alyssia and Laura B Zahodne} } @article {9740, title = {Subjective Social Status Predicts Late-Life Memory Trajectories through Both Mental and Physical Health Pathways}, journal = {Gerontology}, volume = {64}, year = {2018}, month = {03/2018}, pages = {466-474}, abstract = {Background: Subjective social status (SSS) is associated with mental and physical health, independent of objective socioeconomic status (SES), but its association with late-life cognitive decline is unknown. Objective: This study characterizes the association between SSS and late-life memory trajectories in a large, nationally representative sample of older adults in the United States. Methods: Using data from 8,530 participants aged 65 years and older in the Health and Retirement Study, structural equation models tested associations between SSS, objective SES (i.e., educational attainment, occupation, income, and wealth), physical and mental health, and 6-year memory trajectories, controlling for sociodemographic characteristics. Results: Independent of objective SES, lower SSS was associated with worse initial memory but not subsequent memory decline. The association between SSS and initial memory was separately mediated by chronic diseases, stroke, and depressive symptoms. Conclusion: Results provide preliminary behavioral evidence for the deleterious effects of social stress on cognitive aging. These results may help inform the development of policies and interventions to reduce cognitive morbidity among older adults who perceive a low position on the social hierarchy.}, keywords = {Cognitive Ability, Depressive symptoms, Health Conditions and Status, Late-life Health, Memory}, issn = {0304-324X}, doi = {10.1159/000487304}, url = {https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/487304https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/487304https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/487304}, author = {Laura B Zahodne and A Zarina Kraal and Afsara B. Zaheed and Sol, Ketlyne} }