@article {13529, title = {Employment Dynamics Among Adult Children at the Onset of Parental Dementia: Variation by Sociodemographic Characteristics.}, journal = {Journal of Aging and Health}, year = {Forthcoming}, month = {2023 Sep 14}, pages = {8982643231201547}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: To examine the influence of sociodemographic factors on employment changes among adult children following onset of parental Alzheimer{\textquoteright}s disease and related dementia (ADRD).

METHODS: We used Health and Retirement Study (2010-2018; = 20,110) data to examine adult child (ages 50-70) changes in employment and work hours at onset of parental ADRD and potential variation by gender, age, race, ethnicity, and education.

RESULTS: Parental ADRD onset was not associated with changes in adult child employment overall, although associations differed substantially across subpopulations defined by education level. Sons with the lowest education were likely to cease employment, while daughters with the lowest education were likely to reduce work hours. Sons at older ages were increasingly likely to reduce work hours or end employment following parental ADRD onset.

DISCUSSION: The potential impact of parental ADRD on adult child employment is complex and should be considered in the context of sociodemographic factors.

}, keywords = {Caregiving, Dementia, Employment, Families, financial}, issn = {1552-6887}, doi = {10.1177/08982643231201547}, author = {Stokes, Jeffrey E and Kindratt, Tiffany B and Antonucci, Toni C and Cox, Chelsea G and Choi, Hwajung} } @article {12946, title = {Associations of local area level new deal employment in childhood with late life cognition: evidence from the census-linked health and retirement study.}, journal = {Journal of Epidemiology \& Community Health}, volume = {77}, year = {2023}, month = {2023 Fe}, pages = {81-88}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND: Emergency employment programmes during the 1930s and 1940s invested income, infrastructure and social services into communities affected by the Great Depression. We estimate the long-term associations of growing up in an area exposed to New Deal emergency employment in 1940 with cognitive functioning in later life.

METHODS: Members of the Health and Retirement Study cohort (N=5095; mean age 66.3 at baseline) who were age 0-17 in 1940 were linked to their census record from that year, providing prospective information about childhood contextual and family circumstances. We estimated the association between subcounty-level emergency employment participation in 1940 and baseline cognition and rate of cognitive decline between 1998 and 2016.

RESULTS: Compared with those living in the lowest emergency employment quintile in 1940, those who were exposed to moderate levels of emergency employment (third quintile) had better cognitive functioning in 1998 (b=0.092 SD, 95\% CI 0.011 to 0.173), conditional on sociodemographic factors. This effect was modestly attenuated after adjusting for respondents{\textquoteright} adult education, finances and health factors. There were no significant effects of area-level emergency employment on rate of cognitive decline.

CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to New Deal employment policies during childhood is associated with long-term cognitive health benefits. This is partially explained by increases in educational attainment among those with greater levels of emergency employment activity in the place where they were raised. Future research should investigate which types of New Deal investments may most be related to long-term cognitive health, or if the associations we observe are due to co-occurring programmes.

}, keywords = {Adolescent, Censuses, Child, Cognition, Employment, Infant, Newborn, Preschool, Prospective Studies, Retirement}, issn = {1470-2738}, doi = {10.1136/jech-2022-219259}, author = {Lee, Mark and Harrati, Amal and Rehkopf, David H and Modrek, Sepideh} } @article {12908, title = {History of Low Hourly Wage and All-Cause Mortality Among Middle-aged Workers.}, journal = {JAMA}, volume = {329}, year = {2023}, pages = {561-573}, abstract = {

IMPORTANCE: Earning a low wage is an increasingly recognized public health concern, yet little research exists on the long-term health consequences of sustained low-wage earning.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association of sustained low-wage earning and mortality in a sample of workers with hourly wage reported biennially during peak midlife earning years.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This longitudinal study included 4002 US participants, aged 50 years or older, from 2 subcohorts of the Health and Retirement Study (1992-2018) who worked for pay and reported earning hourly wages at 3 or more time points during a 12-year period during their midlife (1992-2004 or 1998-2010). Outcome follow-up occurred from the end of the respective exposure periods until 2018.

EXPOSURES: Low-wage-less than the hourly wage for full-time, full-year work at the federal poverty line-earning history was categorized as never earning a low wage, intermittently earning a low wage, and sustained earning a low wage.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Cox proportional hazards and additive hazards regression models sequentially adjusted for sociodemographics, and economic and health covariates were used to estimate associations between low-wage history and all-cause mortality. We examined interaction with sex or employment stability on multiplicative and additive scales.

RESULTS: Of the 4002 workers (aged 50-57 years at the beginning of exposure period and 61-69 years at the end), 1854 (46.3\%) were female; 718 (17.9\%) experienced employment instability; 366 (9.1\%) had a history of sustained low-wage earning; 1288 (32.2\%) had intermittent low-wage earning periods; and 2348 (58.7\%) had never earned a low wage. In unadjusted analyses, those who had never earned low wages experienced 199 deaths per 10 000 person-years, those with intermittent low wages, 208 deaths per 10 000 person-years, and those with sustained low wages, 275 deaths per 10 000 person-years. In models adjusted for key sociodemographic variables, sustained low-wage earning was associated with mortality (hazard ratio [HR], 1.35; 95\% CI, 1.07-1.71) and excess deaths (66; 95\% CI, 6.6-125); these findings were attenuated with additional adjustments for economic and health covariates. Significant excess death and elevated mortality risk were observed for workers with sustained low-wage exposure and employment fluctuations (eg, for sustained low-wage {\texttimes} employment fluctuated, HR, 2.18; 95\% CI, 1.35-3.53; for sustained low-wage {\texttimes} stable employment, HR, 1.17; 95\% CI, 0.89,-1.54; P for interaction = .003).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Sustained low-wage earning may be associated with elevated mortality risk and excess deaths, especially when experienced alongside unstable employment. If causal, our findings suggest that social and economic policies that improve the financial standing of low-wage workers (eg, minimum wage laws) could improve mortality outcomes.

}, keywords = {Employment, Income, Poverty, Salaries and Fringe Benefits}, issn = {1538-3598}, doi = {10.1001/jama.2023.0367}, author = {Kezios, Katrina L and Lu, Peiyi and Calonico, Sebastian and Al Hazzouri, Adina Zeki} } @article {13180, title = {Inequalities in Retirement Life Span in the United States.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {78}, year = {2023}, month = {2023 May 11}, pages = {891-901}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The length of retirement life may be highly unequal due to persistent and significant discrepancies in old-age mortality. This study assesses gender and educational differences in the average retirement life span and the variation in retirement life span, taking into account individual labor force exit and reentry dynamics.

METHODS: We used longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study from 1996 to 2016, focusing on respondents aged 50 and older (N~=~32,228). Multistate life tables were estimated using discrete-time event history models. The average retirement life span, as well as absolute and relative variation in retirement life span, were calculated analytically.

RESULTS: Among women, we found a persistent educational gradient in average retirement life span over the whole period studied; among men, the relationship between education and retirement expectancy differed across periods. Women and the lower-educated had higher absolute variation in retirement life span than men and the higher-educated-yet these relationships were reversed when examined by relative variation.

DISCUSSION: Our multistate approach provides an accurate and comprehensive picture of the retirement life span of older Americans over the past two decades. Such findings should be considered in high-level discussions on Social Security. Potential reforms such as raising the eligibility age or cutting benefits may have unexpected implications for different social groups due to their differential effects on retirement initiation and reentry dynamics.

}, keywords = {Aged, Educational Status, Employment, Female, Humans, Life Expectancy, Life Tables, Longevity, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, United States}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbac180}, author = {Shi, Jiaxin and Dudel, Christian and Monden, Christiaan and van Raalte, Alyson} } @article {13084, title = {Racial Differences in Employment and Poverty Histories and Health in Older Age.}, journal = {Am J Prev Med}, volume = {64}, year = {2023}, pages = {543-551}, abstract = {

INTRODUCTION: Black Americans encounter more barriers in the job market and earn less than White Americans. However, the extent to which racial disparities in employment and poverty histories impact health is not fully understood. This study characterized employment-poverty histories for Black and White middle-aged adults and examined their association with health.

METHODS: Respondents born in 1948-1953 and enrolled in the 2004 Health and Retirement Study (N=555, N=2,209) were included. Sequence analysis grouped respondents with similar employment-poverty trajectories from 2004 to 2016, and confounder-adjusted regression analyses estimated the associations between these trajectories and health in 2018. Analyses were conducted in 2021-2022.

RESULTS: More than 23\% of Black respondents experienced both employment and poverty fluctuations, including bouts of extreme poverty (<50\% of the federal poverty threshold), whereas no trajectory for White respondents included extreme poverty. Adversities in employment-poverty were associated with worse health. For example, among Black respondents, those who experienced both employment and poverty fluctuations had worse cognition than those employed and not poor (β= -0.55 standardized units, 95\% CI= -0.81, -0.30). Similarly, among White respondents, those who experienced employment fluctuations had worse cognition than those employed (β= -0.35, 95\% CI= -0.46, -0.24). Notably, the employed and not poor trajectory was associated with worse survival among Black respondents than among White respondents.

CONCLUSIONS: Employment fluctuations were associated with worse health, especially cognitive function, where the association was stronger among Black Americans who experienced both employment fluctuations and poverty. Findings highlight the importance of enhancing employment stability and of antipoverty programs, especially for Black Americans.

}, keywords = {Aged, Black or African American, Employment, Humans, Middle Aged, Poverty, Race Factors, White}, issn = {1873-2607}, doi = {10.1016/j.amepre.2022.10.018}, author = {Lu, Peiyi and Kezios, Katrina and Milazzo, Floriana and Jawadekar, Neal and Shelley, Mack and Zeki Al Hazzouri, Adina} } @article {13252, title = {Working, Low Income, and Cancer Caregiving: Financial and Mental Health Impacts.}, journal = {J Clin Oncol}, volume = {41}, year = {2023}, pages = {2939-2948}, abstract = {

PURPOSE: Approximately 6 million people provide caregiving to people diagnosed with cancer. Many must remain employed to support their household and to have access to health insurance. It is unknown if caregiving for a spouse diagnosed with cancer is associated with greater financial and mental stress relative to providing care for a spouse with different conditions.

METHODS: Health and Retirement Study (2002-2020) data were used to compare employed caregivers, younger than age 65 years, caring for a spouse diagnosed with cancer (n = 103) and a matched control group caring for a spouse with other conditions (n = 515). We used logistic regression to examine a decrease in household income, increase in household debt, stopping work, and a new report of a mental health condition over a 4-year period, adjusting for socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, and health insurance status. Subanalyses stratified estimations by median household income.

RESULTS: Around a third of cancer caregivers reported they stopped working (35\%) and had an increase in household debt (30\%). Cancer caregivers in households below the median household income were more likely to report decreased income (13.4 percentage points [pp]; < .10), increased household debt (14.5 pp; < .10), and stopping work (18.8 pp; < .05) than similar noncancer caregivers. Mixed results were found for a change in mental health domains. The results were robust to multiple sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSION: Cancer caregivers from low-income households were more likely to increase debt and incur work loss compared with noncancer caregivers in similar households. Policies such as paid sick leave and family leave are needed for this strained and important population who have financial and employment responsibilities in addition to caregiving.

}, keywords = {Aged, Caregivers, Employment, Humans, Income, Insurance, Health, Mental Health, Neoplasms}, issn = {1527-7755}, doi = {10.1200/JCO.22.02537}, author = {Bradley, Cathy J and Kitchen, Sara and Owsley, Kelsey M} } @article {12865, title = {Association of Low Hourly Wages in Middle Age With Faster Memory Decline in Older Age: Evidence From the Health and Retirement Study.}, journal = {American Journal of Epidemiology}, volume = {191}, year = {2022}, pages = {2051-2062}, abstract = {

Little research has investigated the long-term relationship between low wages and memory decline, despite the growing share of low-wage workers in the US labor market. Here, we examined whether cumulative exposure to low wages over 12 years in midlife is associated with memory decline in later life. Using 1992-2016 data from the Health and Retirement Study, we analyzed data from 2,879 individuals born in 1936-1941 using confounder-adjusted linear mixed-effects models. Low-wage work was defined as an hourly wage lower than two-thirds of the federal median wage for the corresponding year and was categorized into "never," "intermittent," and "sustained" based on wages earned from 1992 to 2004. Memory function was measured at each study visit from 2004 to 2016 via a memory composite score. The confounder-adjusted annual rate of memory decline among "never" low-wage earners was -0.12 standard units (95\% confidence interval: -0.13, -0.10). Compared with this, memory decline among workers with sustained earning of low midlife wages was significantly faster (βtime{\texttimes}sustained = -0.014, 95\% confidence interval: -0.02, -0.01), corresponding to an annual rate of -0.13 standard units for this group. Sustained low-wage earning in midlife was significantly associated with a downward trajectory of memory performance in older age. Enhancing social policies to protect low-wage workers may be especially beneficial for their cognitive health.

}, keywords = {Employment, low-wage workers, Memory, occupational groups, salaries, wages}, issn = {1476-6256}, doi = {10.1093/aje/kwac166}, author = {Kezios, Katrina L and Zhang, Adina and Kim, Soohyun and Lu, Peiyi and Glymour, M Maria and Elfassy, Tali and Al Hazzouri, Adina Zeki} } @article {12318, title = {Association of Perceived Job Insecurity With Subsequent Memory Function and Decline Among Adults 55 Years or Older in England and the US, 2006 to 2016.}, journal = {JAMA Network Open}, volume = {5}, year = {2022}, pages = {e227060}, abstract = {

Importance: Intensified global economic competition and recent financial crises, including those associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, have contributed to uncertainty about job security. However, little is known about the association of perceived job insecurity with memory function and decline among older adults.

Objectives: To investigate the association between perceived job insecurity and subsequent memory function and rate of memory decline among older adults in the US and England.

Design, Setting, and Participants: This 10-year prospective population-based cohort study used data from the US Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) collected from 2006 to 2016. Participants included 9538 adults 55 years or older. Data were analyzed from August 1 to 31, 2021.

Exposures: Perceived job insecurity (yes vs no) at baseline.

Main Outcomes and Measures: Episodic memory z scores at baseline and rate of decline during the follow-up.

Results: Among the 9538 study participants, the mean (SD) age at baseline was 60.97 (6.06) years, and 4981 (52.22\%) were women. A total of 2320 participants (24.32\%) reported job insecurity at baseline (1088 of 3949 [27.55\%] in England and 1232 of 5589 [22.04\%] in the US). Perceived job insecurity after 55 years of age was associated with lower baseline memory z scores in the fully adjusted model (β = -0.04 [95\% CI, -0.08 to -0.01]) but not with rate of memory decline (β = 0.01 [95\% CI, -0.01 to 0.01]). The association appeared to be stronger in the US than in England (job insecurity {\texttimes} US, β = -0.05 [95\% CI, -0.11 to 0.02]), but the estimate was imprecise, potentially owing to low statistical power.

Conclusions and Relevance: The findings of this cohort study suggest that exposure to job insecurity in middle to late life was associated with worse memory function among older adults in the US and England. This association may vary across socioeconomic and social welfare contexts, although future studies with large samples from diverse socioeconomic settings are warranted.

}, keywords = {COVID-19, ELSA, Employment, England, Female, Male, Memory Disorders, Pandemics, Prospective Studies}, issn = {2574-3805}, doi = {10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.7060}, author = {Yu, Xuexin and Kenneth M. Langa and Cho, Tsai-Chin and Lindsay C Kobayashi} } @article {12639, title = {Constructing a Work History Dataset of Jobs Held During Early and Middle Adulthood Using the Health and Retirement Study}, year = {2022}, institution = {UCLA: California Center for Population Research }, address = {Los Angeles, CA}, abstract = {The Health and Retirement Survey (HRS) (https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/about) collects extensive data on current employment and occupation at each wave but data on occupations prior to the start of the survey are limited to an abbreviated job history in each respondent{\textquoteright}s first interview focused on recently held jobs. Therefore, using HRS data to link employment earlier in respondents{\textquoteright} lives to socioeconomic, health, and other outcomes at older ages has been infeasible. The RAND Corporation created a dataset from the HRS Core and Exit Interviews called the RAND HRS Cross-Year Longitudinal file which is used by many researchers working with HRS. This dataset contains a variable called the "longest job held" for each respondent. However, this variable is the longest job held among the limited subset of jobs reported in HRS (most of which are recent) and not necessarily the longest job that the respondent has held to date. In 2017, HRS conducted a Life History Mail Survey (LHMS) of HRS respondents who had participated in the 2016 Core interview. The LHMS was conducted in three parts which, combined, include all of the 2016 Core interview respondents. The LHMS questionnaire was a pencil-paper survey completed and returned by respondents and included a grid asking }, keywords = {Employment, Functional limitations, life course, Occupation}, url = {https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3bz58411}, author = {Park, Sung S. and Pratt, Boriana and Pebley, Anne R. and Goldman, Noreen and Sheftel, Mara Getz and Andrasfay, Theresa and Lee, Keunbok} } @article {12558, title = {Exploring the relationship between self-employment and women{\textquoteright}s cardiovascular health.}, journal = {BMC Womens Health}, volume = {22}, year = {2022}, pages = {307}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND: Compared with wage and salary work, self-employment has been linked to more favorable cardiovascular health outcomes within the general population. Women comprise a significant proportion of the self-employed workforce and are disproportionately affected by cardiovascular disease. Self-employed women represent a unique population in that their cardiovascular health outcomes may be related to gender-specific advantages of non-traditional employment. To date, no studies have comprehensively explored the association between self-employment and risk factors for cardiovascular disease among women.

METHODS: We conducted a weighted cross-sectional analysis using data from the University of Michigan Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Our study sample consisted of 4624 working women (employed for wages and self-employed) enrolled in the 2016 HRS cohort. Multivariable linear and logistic regression were used to examine the relationship between self-employment and several self-reported physical and mental health risk factors for cardiovascular disease, controlling for healthcare access.

RESULTS: Among working women, self-employment was associated with a 34\% decrease in the odds of reporting obesity, a 43\% decrease in the odds of reporting hypertension, a 30\% decrease in the odds of reporting diabetes, and a 68\% increase in the odds of reporting participation in at least twice-weekly physical activity (p < 0.05). BMI for self-employed women was on average 1.79 units lower than it was for women working for wages (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS: Employment structure may have important implications for cardiovascular health among women, and future studies should explore the causal relationship between self-employment and cardiovascular health outcomes in this population.

TRIAL REGISTRATION: Not applicable.

}, keywords = {Cross-Sectional Studies, Educational Status, Employment, Female, Social Class, Socioeconomic factors}, issn = {1472-6874}, doi = {10.1186/s12905-022-01893-w}, author = {Dzodzomenyo, Sedina and Narain, Kimberly Danae Cauley} } @inbook {12607, title = {Forecasting Employment of the Older Population }, booktitle = {Overtime: America{\textquoteright}s Aging Workforce and the Future of Working Longer}, year = {2022}, pages = {155-174}, publisher = {Oxford University Press}, organization = {Oxford University Press}, chapter = {7}, keywords = {Employment, Older workers, Retirement}, doi = {10.1093/oso/9780197512067.003.0008}, author = {Michael D Hurd and Rohwedder, Susann}, editor = {Berkman, Lisa F and Truesdale, Beth C.} } @article {12570, title = {The inequitable burden of the COVID-19 pandemic among marginalized older workers in the United States: an intersectional approach.}, journal = {The Journals of Gerontology, Series B }, volume = {77}, year = {2022}, pages = {1928-1937}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly affected the lives of people globally, widening longstanding inequities. We examined the COVID-19 pandemic{\textquoteright}s impact on employment conditions by race/ethnicity, gender, and educational attainment and the association between such conditions and well-being in older adults in the United States.

METHODS: Using data from the Health and Retirement Study respondents interviewed between May 2020 and May 2021 when they were >=55 years of age, we examined intersectional patterns in COVID-19-related changes in employment conditions among 4,107 participants working for pay at the start of the pandemic. We also examined the compounding nature of changes in employment conditions and their association with financial hardship, food insecurity, and poor self-rated health.

RESULTS: Relative to non-Hispanic White men with greater than high school education (>HS), Black and Latinx men and women were more likely to experience job loss irrespective of education; among those who did not experience job loss, men with <=HS reporting Black, Latinx, or "other" race were >90\% less likely to transition to remote work. Participants who experienced job loss with decreased income or continued in-person employment with decreased income/shift changes had greater prevalence of financial hardship, food insecurity, and poor/fair self-rated health than others.

DISCUSSION: The impact of COVID-19 on employment conditions is inequitably patterned and is associated with financial hardship, food insecurity, and adverse health in older adults. Policies to improve employment quality and expand social insurance programs among this group are needed to reduce growing inequities in well-being later in life.

}, keywords = {COVID-19, Employment, Inequities, Intersectionality}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbac095}, author = {Andrea, Sarah B and Eisenberg-Guyot, Jerzy and Blaikie, Kieran J and Owens, Shanise and Oddo, Vanessa M and Peckham, Trevor and Minh, Anita and Hajat, Anjum} } @article {11626, title = {Multifaceted Demands of Work and Their Associations with Cognitive Functioning: Findings From the Health and Retirement Study.}, journal = {The Journals of Gerontology: Series B }, volume = {77}, year = {2022}, pages = {351-361}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The present study examines the associations among mental, social, and physical demands of work with cognitive functioning among older adults in the United States.

METHODS: Data from 3,176 respondents in the Health and Retirement Study were analyzed using growth curve modeling (2004-2014). The study investigated differences by gender, race, ethnicity, and education.

RESULTS: Higher mental and social demands of work were associated with higher levels of initial cognitive functioning, but not significantly associated with slower cognitive decline over time. Physical demands of work were negatively associated with initial cognitive functioning and also marginally associated with a slower rate of decline in cognitive functioning going into older adulthood. In stratified analyses, results varied by sociodemographic characteristics.

DISCUSSION: The results partially support the environmental complexity hypothesis and the productive aging framework in that higher mental and social demands and lower physical demands relate to better cognitive functioning at baseline, with the differences appearing stable throughout older adulthood. The stratified results shed light on addressing disparities in cognitive aging and work environments.

}, keywords = {Cognition, Employment, Older workers}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbab087}, author = {Lee, Yeonjung Jane and Gonzales, Ernest and Andel, Ross} } @article {12539, title = {Multimorbidity and Employment Outcomes Among Middle-Aged US Cancer Survivors.}, journal = {Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine}, volume = {64}, year = {2022}, pages = {476-481}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship between multimorbidity and subsequent 2-year employment outcomes among middle-aged United States (US) cancer survivors. In addition, we examined whether the relationship differed by survivor characteristics.

METHODS: Data of 633 cancer survivors (ages 51 to 64) from the 2014 Health and Retirement Study were used to identify multimorbidity profiles and evaluate associations between multimorbidity and prolonged unemployment during follow-up.

RESULTS: Approximately 64\% of cancer survivors met the criteria for multimorbidity. Latent class analysis revealed three distinct multimorbidity profiles distinguished by the presence or absence of psychiatric disorders. We observed a significant association between high psychiatric multimorbidity and prolonged unemployment after 2-year follow-up (relative risk = 2.78, 95\% Confidence Interval = 1.28 to 6.00), with the effect more pronounced among low-income survivors.

CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatric multimorbidity was associated with prolonged unemployment among middle-aged cancer survivors, particularly among low-income survivors.

}, keywords = {Cancer Survivors, Employment, multimorbidity, Neoplasms, Survivors, Unemployment}, issn = {1536-5948}, doi = {10.1097/JOM.0000000000002473}, author = {Ekenga, Christine C and Kim, BoRin and Kwon, Eunsun and Park, Sojung} } @article {11361, title = {Older Workers with Physically Demanding Jobs and their Cognitive Functioning.}, journal = {Ageing International}, volume = {47}, year = {2022}, pages = {55-71}, abstract = {

Although employment can provide older people with both financial and nonfinancial rewards, it is questionable whether those benefits extend to all older workers, particularly those with physically demanding jobs. This study aimed to examine whether the perceived level of physical demands placed on older workers 55 or older is significantly associated with their cognitive function. Using the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) 2010 wave, we analyzed two domains of cognition: verbal episodic memory and reasoning. After controlling for demographics and risk factors for age-related cognitive deterioration, the perceived level of physical demands placed on older workers was still significantly and negatively linked with both memory and reasoning domains of cognition. Older workers with more physically demanding jobs tended to have poorer cognitive function. Further longitudinal studies are needed to confirm this relationship.

Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12126-020-09404-8.

}, keywords = {cognitive function, Employment, Older workers, Physically demanding jobs, productive aging}, issn = {0163-5158}, doi = {10.1007/s12126-020-09404-8}, author = {Choi, Eunhee and Kim, Sung-Geun and Laura B Zahodne and Steven M. Albert} } @article {12434, title = {Pathways to Retirement Among Dual Earning Couples}, journal = {The Journal of the Economics of Ageing}, volume = {22}, year = {2022}, abstract = {Research indicates significant roles for gradual transitions to full retirement and for coordination between spouses in the typical retirement experience. However, there is little research exploring the potentially important interactions between the two. This paper addresses this gap in the literature and provides a more robust understanding of retirement behavior by examining the transition from full-time work to fully retired among dual earning couples, which we call joint retirement trajectories. We analyze 12 waves of the Health and Retirement Study to map out the distribution of potential pathways that couples undertake when retiring. We aimed to present the fullest picture possible of joint retirement trajectories under the hypothesis that if there were a common, dominant, or typical path, it would emerge. Instead, the consistent finding is variation across couples in the length, sequence, leader, concordance, and labor supply in the move from full-time work to fully retired. Using simple heuristics to classify joint retirement trajectories allows us to gain perspective in the rarity of full simultaneous retirement and motivates future research into the joint use of partial retirement by couples.}, keywords = {Employment, financial decision making, Households, Retirement, retirement benefits, Unemployment}, doi = {10.1016/j.jeoa.2022.100384}, author = {Carman, Katherine and Edwards, Kathryn A. and Brown, Kristine M} } @article {12591, title = {Work expectations, depressive symptoms, and passive suicidal ideation among older adults: Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study.}, journal = {The Gerontologist}, volume = {62}, year = {2022}, pages = {1477-1485}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Employment and work transitions (e.g., retirement) influence mental health. However, how psychosocial contexts such as anticipation and uncertainty about work transitions, irrespective of the transitions themselves, relate to mental health is unclear. This study examined the relationships of work expectations with depressive symptoms, major depression episodes (MDE), and passive suicidal ideation over a 10-year period among the "Baby Boom" cohort of the Health and Retirement Study.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Analysis was limited to 13,247 respondents aged 53 - 70 observed from 2008 to 2018. Past-year depressive symptoms, MDE, and passive suicidal ideation were indexed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview-Short Form. Expectations regarding working full-time after age 62 were assessed using a probability scale (zero to 100\%). Mixed effect logistic regressions with time-varying covariates were used to assess the relationship of work expectations with mental health, accounting for demographics, health status, and functioning, and stratified by baseline employment status.

RESULTS: At baseline, higher work expectations were inversely associated with depressive symptoms. Longitudinally, higher expectations were associated with lower odds of depressive symptoms (Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.93, 95\% CI: 0.91, 0.94). This association was more pronounced among respondents not working at baseline (ORNot working=0.93 vs. ORWorking=0.96). Greater uncertainty (i.e., expectations near 50\%) was also inversely associated with depressive symptoms. Results were similar for past-year MDE and passive suicidal ideation.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Expectations (overall likelihood and uncertainty), as indicators of psychosocial context, provide insight into the processes that link work transitions with depression risk.

}, keywords = {depression, Employment}, issn = {1758-5341}, doi = {10.1093/geront/gnac110}, author = {Mezuk, Briana and Dang, Linh and Jurgens, David and Jacqui Smith} } @article {11587, title = {Do Stronger Employment Discrimination Protections Decrease Reliance on Social Security Disability Insurance? Evidence from the U.S. Social Security Reforms}, number = {WP$\#$2021-7}, year = {2021}, institution = {Center for Retirement Research at Boston College}, address = {Chestnut Hill, MA}, abstract = {This paper examines spillovers onto Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) that occurred due to the Social Security Amendments of 1983, which, among other changes, gradually increased the retirement age for full benefits from 65 to 67. We determine whether the spillovers onto SSDI were different in states with age and disability discrimination laws that were broader (covered more people) or stronger (allowed for more damages for plaintiffs) than the federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Our paper uses three sources of data: (1) counts of the universe of SSDI applications and receipts by state, age group, sex, and year; (2) the Health and Retirement Study, merged with restricted-access state identifiers; and, (3) the Health and Retirement Study, merged with restricted access state identifiers and Social Security Administration Form-831 disability records. To quantify the moderating impact of existing state laws on spillovers onto SSDI applications, receipts and employment, we use a difference-in-differences approach, comparing age cohorts who were affected by the reforms to similar age cohorts who were unaffected, and then this comparing this affected-unaffected difference across states by state law. Using the Health and Retirement Study data, we also conduct heterogeneity analysis to determine if effects differed for different age groups (ages 55-61, ages 62-64, ages 65 to the full benefits retirement age), those with or without disabilities, and by sex}, keywords = {Discrimination, Employment, Social Security Disability Insurance}, url = {https://crr.bc.edu/working-papers/do-stronger-employment-discrimination-protections-decrease-reliance-on-social-security-disability-insurance-evidence-from-the-u-s-social-security-reforms/}, author = {Patrick Button and Khan, Mashfiqur R. and Penn, Mary} } @article {11393, title = {Employment may slow memory decline for women}, journal = {Featured Research}, year = {2021}, publisher = {National Institute on Aging}, address = {Washington, D.C.}, abstract = {Working in the paid labor workforce may have cognitive benefits later in life for U.S. women. For a study supported in part by NIA, researchers looked at the influence of social, employment, and gender-related factors on memory decline with implications for dementia risk. Their findings, recently published in Neurology, show that women in the workforce during early adulthood and midlife experienced slower rates of memory decline than those who had not worked for pay.}, keywords = {Cognition, Employment, women}, url = {https://www.nia.nih.gov/news/employment-may-slow-memory-decline-women}, author = {National Institute on Aging} } @article {12085, title = {Health dynamics shape life-cycle incomes.}, journal = {Journal of Health Economics}, volume = {75}, year = {2021}, pages = {102398}, abstract = {

This paper empirically investigates the long-run effects of major health improvements on income growth in the United States. To isolate exogenous changes in health, the econometric model uses quasi-experimental variation in cardiovascular disease mortality across states over time. Based on data for the white population, the results show that there is a causal link between health and income per person, and they provide novel evidence that health dynamics shape life-cycle incomes. Life-cycle income profiles slope more strongly at the beginning and at the end of work life in 2000 than in 1960, indicating that age becomes a more prominent determinant of income dynamics over this period. The channels for this transformation include better health, higher educational attainment, and changing labor supply.

}, keywords = {Demography, Economics, Educational Status, Employment, Fertility, Health Workforce, Humans, Income, Population Dynamics, Socioeconomic factors}, issn = {1879-1646}, doi = {10.1016/j.jhealeco.2020.102398}, author = {Rainer Kotschy} } @article {11058, title = {How Self-Employed Older Adults Differ by Age: Evidence and Implications From the Health and Retirement Study}, journal = {The Gerontologist}, volume = {61}, year = {2021}, month = {2020}, pages = {763-774}, abstract = {There has been increased attention in recent years on self-employment in later life, with about one in five workers past of the age of 50 working for themselves. This study aims to build upon previous documentation of the characteristics of self-employed older adults by estimating how these characteristics vary by age.Using seven waves of the Health and Retirement Study with a sample of more than 12,000 working older adults, this study considers how the association between self-employment and sociodemographic characteristics; indicators of human, social, and financial capital; and risk tolerance differ between adults aged 50 to 61 and 62 years and older. Binary logistic regression and seemingly unrelated estimation are used to estimate and compare the characteristics by age group.Compared to wage-and-salary work and controlling for all other factors in the models, the oldest self-employed group was more likely to identify as Black, report lower health, and receive health insurance from several sources than the younger group. Further, the older group reported lower individual earnings from work yet higher total household income (less individual earnings) and was also less likely to formally volunteer at the highest commitment levels.With some exceptions, these results indicate that the diversity of self-employed older adults within traditional retirement age is greater than among those before this age. Implications regarding how access to key safety net programs, such as Social Security retirement benefits and Medicare, may lead to this finding are discussed.}, keywords = {Employment, Entrepreneurship, Financial capital, Human capital, Social capital}, isbn = {0016-9013}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa132}, author = {Cal J. Halvorsen} } @article {11417, title = {Occupational differences in advance care planning: Are medical professionals more likely to plan?}, journal = {Social Science \& Medicine}, volume = {272}, year = {2021}, pages = {113730}, abstract = {Advance care planning (ACP) helps ensure that treatment preferences are met at the end of life. Medical professionals typically are responsible for facilitating patients{\textquoteright} ACP, and may be especially effective in doing so if they have first-hand insights from their own planning. However, no large-scale U.S. studies examine whether persons working on the front lines of health care are more likely than other workers to have done ACP. We contrast the use of three ACP components (living wills, durable power of attorney for health care, and informal discussions) among persons working in medical, legal, social/health support services, other professional, and other non-professional occupations. Data are from the Health and Retirement Study (n = 7668) and Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (n = 5464). Multivariable logistic regression analyses are adjusted for socioeconomic, demographic, health, and psychosocial factors that may confound associations between occupational group and ACP. Medical professionals in both samples are more likely than other professional workers to discuss their own treatment preferences, net of all controls. Medical professionals in the WLS are more likely to execute living wills and DPAHC designations, whereas legal professionals in the HRS are more likely to name a DPAHC. Non-professional workers are significantly less likely to do all three types of planning, although these differences are accounted for by socioeconomic factors. Social and health services professionals are no more likely than other professionals to do ACP. The on-the-job experiences and expertise of medical professionals may motivate them to discuss their own end-of-life preferences, which may render them more trustworthy sources of information for patients and clients. The Affordable Care Act provides reimbursement for medical professionals{\textquoteright} end-of-life consultations with Medicare beneficiary patients, yet practitioners uncomfortable with such conversations may fail to initiate them. Programs to increase medical professionals{\textquoteright} own ACP may have the secondary benefit of increasing ACP among their patients.}, keywords = {Advance care planning, Employment, end-of-life, health, Occupations, Social stratification}, isbn = {0277-9536}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113730}, author = {Deborah Carr and Lucie Kalousova and Lin, Katherine and Sarah A. Burgard} } @article {11309, title = {The Association of Sensory Impairment With Incident Disability-Related Cessation of Employment in Older Adults}, journal = {Innovation in Aging}, volume = {4}, year = {2020}, pages = {216}, abstract = {Sensory impairment (SI) is common among older adults, and it is an increasingly important public health challenge as the population ages. We evaluated the association between SI and incident disability-related cessation of employment in older adults using the population-based Health and Retirement Study. Participants employed in 2006 completed biennial interviews until self-reported incident disability-related cessation of employment. Participants were censored at loss to follow-up, retirement, or 2018. Participants rated their vision and hearing, using eyeglasses or hearing aids if applicable, on a Likert scale (poor, fair, good, very good, excellent). SI was defined as poor or fair ability, and SI was categorized as neither SI (NSI), vision impairment alone (VI), hearing impairment alone (HI), and dual SI (DSI). Cox proportional hazard regression assessed the association between SI and incident disability-related cessation of employment, adjusting for demographic and health covariates. Overall, 4726 participants were included: 421 (8.9\%) were with VI, 487 (10.3) with HI, and 203 (4.3\%) with DSI. Mean age was 61.0 {\textpm} 6.8 years, 2488 (52.6\%) were women, and 918 (19.4) were non-White. In the fully adjusted model, incident disability-related cessation of employment over the 12-year follow-up period was higher in VI (Hazard Ratio (HR)=1.30, 95\% confidence interval (CI)=0.92, 1.85), HI (HR=1.60, CI=1.16, 2.22), and DSI (HR=2.02, CI=1.38, 2.96). These findings indicate that employed older adults with SI are at increased risk of incident disability-related cessation of employment, and that older adults with DSI are particularly vulnerable. Addressing SI in older adults may lengthen their contribution to the workforce.}, keywords = {Disability, Employment, sensory impairment}, isbn = {2399-5300}, doi = {10.1093/geroni/igaa057.697}, author = {Ahmed F Shakarchi and Morales, Emmanuel Garcia and Nicholas S. Reed and Bonnielin K Swenor} } @mastersthesis {11063, title = {Essays on Disability, Public Assistance Programs and Employment}, volume = {Doctor of Philosophy}, year = {2020}, school = {University at Albany, State University of New York}, address = {Albany, NY}, abstract = {This dissertation explores the relationship between disability, public assistance programs and employment. The first chapter investigates the impact of chronic pain on the labor market participation decisions of people nearing retirement age. The results from estimating a random effect discrete-time hazard model suggest that chronic pain greatly enlarges the hazard of exiting labor market even after controlling for many diseases that contribute to pain, and this effect increases with the severity of pain level. I further estimate a discrete-time competing risks model to explore the association between chronic pain and labor market exits due to different reasons. The finding indicates that chronic pain plays a more important role in the labor market exit decisions of those who are disabled, rather than those who retire normally, implying that chronic pain is a good measure of health-related work capacity. The second chapter examines a potentially important spillover effect of raising the minimum wages. I estimate the impact of minimum wage increases on SSI program participation and employment outcomes among non-elderly adults with disability. Working age adults with disability are at the margin of being affected by the wage floor. On the one hand, a large portion of this population may not have the capacity to work. On the other hand, this is the group that may be paid exactly at the minimum wage rate, on the premise that their health conditions do not completely stop them from working. Using the variation in minimum wages across states during the period 2004-2013, the findings suggest that higher minimum wages may cutback SSI program participation through the channel of employment effect for younger adults with disability. No discernible effect is found on the program participation or the employment outcome of adults aged 50 and older. The last two chapters examine the effects of a policy change in the Medicaid eligibility rule on various individual outcomes, including Medicaid coverage, employment, earnings and household savings. The third chapter estimates the effects of eliminating Medicaid asset tests on Medicaid enrollment and labor market outcomes of non-elderly, low-income parents using a Difference-in-Difference method. The identification strategy exploits the exogenous variation in the timing of asset tests removal among states. The finding indicates that removing Medicaid asset tests only play an important role in mothers{\textquoteright} outcomes. Asset test removal is associated with a 4.4 percentage point increase in the probability of Medicaid enrollment for mothers, but the expanded access to Medicaid slightly lowers their earned income, and decreases the probability of full-time employment and any employment by 2.3 and 2.8 percentage points respectively. The last chapter assesses the effect of eliminating Medicaid asset tests for low-income families on household saving behavior. I use Difference-in-Difference method and data on loweducated household heads with children from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) to estimate the elimination effects. The findings indicate a strong positive impact of eliminating asset tests on household holdings of liquid assets, and the effects are greater for states with stricter lower asset limit levels before the elimination. However, the effect is not robust to the inclusion of state specific time trends in the model, which may imply that the elimination of Medicaid asset tests correlates with other trends in state level output, and it may not be possible to disentangle the causal effect of the asset test removal from these underlying trends. This study finds no evidence of the elimination effect on non-liquid assets or household net worth (excluding the value of primary residence and first car). }, keywords = {Disability, Employment, public assistance programs}, url = {https://search.proquest.com/openview/b96b0b5d9ca8e9d6d833afadc2552d90/1?pq-origsite=gscholar\&cbl=18750\&diss=y}, author = {Zhu, Xiaoqi} } @article {GEIGER201918, title = {The growing American health penalty: International trends in the employment of older workers with poor health}, journal = {Social Science Research}, volume = {82}, year = {2019}, pages = {18 - 32}, abstract = {Many countries have reduced the generosity of sickness and disability programs while making them more activating {\textendash} yet few studies have examined how employment rates have subsequently changed. We present estimates of how employment rates of older workers with poor health in 13 high-income countries changed 2004{\textendash}7 to 2012{\textendash}15 using HRS/SHARE/ELSA data. We find that those in poor health in the USA have experienced a unique deterioration: they have not only seen a widening gap to the employment rates of those with good health, but their employment rates fell per se. We find only for Sweden (and possibly England) signs that the health employment gap shrank, with rising employment but stable gaps elsewhere. We then examine possible explanations for the development in the USA: we find no evidence it links to labor market trends, but possible links to the USA{\textquoteright}s lack of disability benefit reform and wider economic trends.}, keywords = {Disability, Employment, health, Panel data, Social Security, Welfare}, issn = {0049-089X}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.03.008}, url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0049089X1830560X}, author = {Ben Baumberg Geiger and Ren{\'e} B{\"o}heim and Thomas Leoni} } @article {6488, title = {How Does Employment-Based Insurance Coverage Relate to Health After Early Retirement?}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {74}, year = {2019}, month = {2019 Sep 15}, pages = {1211-1212}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Age Factors, Aged, depression, Employment, Female, Health Benefit Plans, Employee, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, United States}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbw020}, url = {http://psychsocgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/03/17/geronb.gbw020.short}, author = {Ben Lennox Kail} } @mastersthesis {10294, title = {Three Healthcare Topics: Adult Children{\textquoteright}s Informal Care to Aging Parents, Working Age Population{\textquoteright}s Marijuana Use, and Indigenous Adolescents{\textquoteright} Suicidal Behaviors}, volume = {PhD}, year = {2019}, note = {Copyright - Database copyright ProQuest LLC; ProQuest does not claim copyright in the individual underlying works; Last updated - 2019-03-07}, pages = {122}, school = {Indiana University}, type = {phd}, abstract = {This dissertation examines three vulnerable groups{\textquoteright} health and healthcare access. The first research uses the 2002{\textendash}2011 Health and Retirement Study data to estimate the effects of adult children{\textquoteright}s employment on their caregiving to aging parents. State monthly unemployment rates are used as an instrument for employment. Results show that being employed affects neither male nor female adult children{\textquoteright}s caregiving to aging parents significantly. The findings imply that the total amount of informal care provided by adult children might not be affected by changes in labor market participation trends of the two genders. The second research studies the labor impact of Colorado and Washington{\textquoteright}s passage of recreational marijuana laws in December 2012. The difference-in-differences method is applied on the 2010{\textendash}2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health state estimates and the 2008{\textendash}2013 Survey of Income and Program Participation data to estimate legalization{\textquoteright}s effects on employment. The results show that legalizing recreational marijuana increases marijuana use and reduces the number of weeks employed in a given month by 0.090 among those aged 21 to 25. The laws{\textquoteright} labor effects are not significant on those aged 26 and above. To reduce legalization{\textquoteright}s negative effects on employment, states may consider raising the minimum legal age for recreational marijuana use. The third research examines disparities in suicidal behaviors between indigenous and non-indigenous adolescents. The study analyzes the 2001{\textendash}2013 Youth Risk Behavior Survey data. Oaxaca decomposition is applied to detect sources of disparities in suicide consideration, planning, and attempts. The study finds that the disparities in suicidal behaviors can be explained by differences in suicidal factors{\textquoteright} prevalence and effect sizes between the two groups. Suicidal behavior disparities might be reduced by protecting male indigenous adolescents from sexual abuse and depression, reducing female indigenous adolescents{\textquoteright} substance use, as well as involving male indigenous adolescents in sports teams.}, keywords = {0501:Economics, 0510:Labor economics, 0573:Public health, 0769:Health care management, Aging, Economics, Employment, Health and environmental sciences, Health care management, Indigenous adolescent, Informal care, Labor economics, Marijuana, Public Health, Social Sciences, Suicidal behavior}, isbn = {9780438889187}, url = {https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/handle/1805/18483}, author = {Qiao,Nan} } @mastersthesis {10248, title = {The Effects of Paid Work on Health in Later Life: Variation by Socioeconomic Status.}, volume = {Doctor of Philosophy}, year = {2018}, month = {07/2018}, pages = {101}, school = {Florida State University}, address = {Tallahassee, FL}, abstract = {Studies examining the link between older adults{\textquoteright} labor force participation and health frequently report that later life employment is health enhancing. However, few studies consider how these benefits could vary by socioeconomic status (SES). In this dissertation I seek to address this oversight using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). By exploring the relationship between older adults{\textquoteright} employment, SES, and health in three key areas (i.e., depressive symptoms, total recall, and physical impairment), I provide a more in-depth account of the health implications of later life employment. To accomplish this goal, I conduct three sets of analyses. In the first set of analyses I assess cross-sectional associations between employment status and health. My findings indicate that both part-time employment and full-time employment are significantly linked to fewer depressive symptoms, better recall, and fewer functional limitations. Contrary to my expectations, I find no evidence that full-time employment is especially beneficial compared with part-time employment. In the second set of analyses, I use longitudinal data to evaluate associations between employment stability and change and health. The longitudinal results are generally consistent with cross-sectional findings and indicate a positive relationship between older adults{\textquoteright} employment and health. In the third set of analyses, I examine whether the relationship between older adults{\textquoteright} labor force involvement and health varies by SES using cross-sectional and longitudinal data. A review of the interaction terms from the cross-sectional analyses suggests that SES does not significantly condition such a relationship. However, longitudinal findings do offer some evidence that higher educational attainment and wealth may weaken the association between employment change and cognitive and physical health.}, keywords = {Cognitive health, Employment, Physical Health, Psychological Health, Retirement, SES}, url = {http://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu\%3A647232}, author = {Gumber, Clayton Michael} } @article {11175, title = {Back to Work? Not Everyone. Examining the Longitudinal Relationships Between Informal Caregiving and Paid Work After Formal Retirement.}, journal = {Journal of Gerontology, Series B }, volume = {72}, year = {2017}, pages = {532-539}, abstract = {

Objectives: Research on unretirement (retirees who re-enter the workforce) is burgeoning. However, no longitudinal study has examined how informal care relates to unretirement. Utilizing role theory, this study aims to explore the heterogeneity of informal care responsibilities in retirement and to examine how informal care informs re-entering the workforce in later life.

Method: Data were drawn from the Health and Retirement Study of fully retired individuals aged 62 years and older in 1998 (n = 8,334) and followed to 2008. Informal care responsibilities included helping a spouse/partner with activities of daily living (ADLs) or instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs); helping parent(s) or parent-in-law(s) with ADLs or IADLs; and single or co-occurrence of care roles. Covariates included economic and social factors. Cox proportional hazard models were utilized.

Results: When compared with noncaregivers, helping a spouse with ADLs or IADLs reduced the odds of returning-to-work in the subsequent wave by 78\% and 55\%, respectively (hazard ratio [HR]: 0.22, confidence interval [CI]: 0.06-0.87; HR: 0.45, CI: 0.21-0.97). There was no statistical difference to returning-to-work between noncaregivers and helping parents with ADLs/IADLs or multiple caregiving responsibilities.

Discussion: Role theory provided a useful framework to understand the relationships of informal care and unretirement. Aspects of role strain emerged, where, spousal caregivers were less likely to come out of retirement. Spousal caregivers may face challenges to working longer, and subsequently, opportunities to bolster their retirement security are diminished. Research and policy implications are discussed.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Caregivers, Employment, Family, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, return to work}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbv095}, author = {Gonzales, Ernest and Lee, Yeonjung and Brown, Celeste} } @article {8675, title = {Effects of receipt of Social Security retirement benefits on older women{\textquoteright}s employment.}, journal = {J Women Aging}, volume = {29}, year = {2017}, month = {2017}, pages = {448-459}, abstract = {

Labor force participation of women has declined since 1999; however, labor force participation of women 62+ has increased. The 2000-2006 waves of Health and Retirement Study (HRS) data, the initial years of the continuing upward trajectory, were used to test the effects of receipt of Social Security retirement benefits on older women{\textquoteright}s employment. The models tested: (a) the effect of receipt of Social Security retirement benefits on whether employed; and (b) for women receiving Social Security retirement benefits, the effect of age elected receipt of benefits on whether employed. Both models included the effects of human capital characteristics and income sources. Receipt of Social Security benefits, pension income, and current age reduced the likelihood of employment; while educational level, good to excellent health, and nonmarried marital status increased the likelihood of employment. The older the woman was when she elected Social Security benefits, the more likely she was to be employed.

}, keywords = {Aged, Employment, Female, Humans, Middle Aged, Retirement, Social Security, United States, Women{\textquoteright}s Health, Women, Working}, issn = {1540-7322}, doi = {10.1080/08952841.2016.1214035}, author = {Gillen, Martie and Claudia J Heath} } @article {8489, title = {Gender Differences in Spousal Care Across the Later Life Course.}, journal = {Res Aging}, volume = {39}, year = {2017}, month = {2017 09}, pages = {934-959}, abstract = {

Spouses often serve as the primary caregivers to their ill or disabled partners. Studies have shown that men receive more care from their wives than vice versa, but few studies have focused on how the gender gap in care varies across the later life course. Drawing on data from the Health and Retirement Study, this study examined the moderating effects of age, gender, and full-time employment on married women{\textquoteright}s and men{\textquoteright}s receipt of spousal care. This study found that among community-dwelling married adults, the gender gap in care was larger among those in middle age (50-65) than it was among those in older age. As women and men aged, the gender gap decreased primarily because men left full-time work and increased the amount of time that they spent caring for their wives. As gender differences in full-time employment narrowed, the gender gap in spousal care narrowed.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Aged, Caregivers, Cross-Sectional Studies, Employment, Female, Home Care Services, Humans, Male, Marriage, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Spouses}, issn = {1552-7573}, doi = {10.1177/0164027516644503}, url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27193046}, author = {Glauber, Rebecca} } @article {8594, title = {Social Capital and Unretirement: Exploring the Bonding, Bridging, and Linking Aspects of Social Relationships.}, journal = {Res Aging}, volume = {39}, year = {2017}, month = {2017 12}, pages = {1100-1117}, abstract = {

Working longer is an important area of research given extended life expectancy, shortfalls of retirement income, desires to remain socially engaged, and solvency concerns of social insurance programs. The purpose of this longitudinal population-based study of older adults is to examine how different types of social resources (social bonding, bridging, and linking) relate to returning to work after retirement. Data were drawn from the Health and Retirement Study of fully retired older adults aged 62+ in 1998 ( N = 8,334) and followed to 2008. After controlling for a comprehensive set of fixed and time-varying covariates, findings suggest that social bridging (informal volunteering) and social linking (formal volunteering, partnered with an employed spouse) were strongly and positively related to returning to work (Hazard Ratio [HR]: 1.49, p < .001; HR: 1.58, p < .0001; and HR: 1.75, p < .0001, respectively). Social bonding resources were not significantly associated with returning to work. Implications for social policy are discussed.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Analysis of Variance, Cross-Sectional Studies, Employment, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, Social capital, United States}, issn = {1552-7573}, doi = {10.1177/0164027516664569}, url = {http://roa.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.1177/0164027516664569}, author = {Guillermo Ernest Gonzales and Nowell, William Benjamin} } @article {8492, title = {Successful Aging in the Context of the Disablement Process: Working and Volunteering as Moderators on the Association Between Chronic Conditions and Subsequent Functional Limitations.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {72}, year = {2017}, month = {2017 Mar 01}, pages = {340-350}, abstract = {

Objectives : This study evaluated the successful aging model by assessing the impact of two forms of productive engagement-working and volunteering-as potential interventions in the process of disablement.

Method : The Health and Retirement Study was used to (a) estimate two-stage selection equations of (i) currently working part time and full time and (ii) currently volunteering less than 100 hours and volunteering 100 hours or more per year (net of chronic health problems) and (b) assess whether, net of selection, working, and volunteering moderate the association between chronic conditions and subsequent functional limitations.

Results : Chronic conditions were associated with elevated levels of subsequent functional limitations, whereas both working and volunteering were associated with lower levels of subsequent functional limitations. Moreover, workers and volunteers of less than 100 hours per year experienced a reduction in the association of chronic conditions on subsequent functional limitations.

Discussion : This research highlights the role of productive engagement as a key element in successful aging. Not only do work and volunteering have direct associations with health outcomes themselves, but they also act as potential interventions in the process of disablement by attenuating the way in which chronic conditions are translated into subsequent functional limitations. This suggests that (a) future research should apply successful aging models to health processes as well as health outcomes and (b) policy makers should support social institutions that foster late-life productive engagement.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Disabled Persons, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, United States, Volunteers}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbw060}, url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27225973}, author = {Ben Lennox Kail and Dawn C Carr} } @article {8682, title = {A Comparison of Educational Differences on Physical Health, Mortality, and Healthy Life Expectancy in Japan and the United States.}, journal = {J Aging Health}, volume = {28}, year = {2016}, month = {2016 10}, pages = {1256-78}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the educational gradient of health and mortality between two long-lived populations: Japan and the United States.

METHOD: This analysis is based on the Nihon University Japanese Longitudinal Study of Aging and the Health and Retirement Study to compare educational gradients in multiple aspects of population health-life expectancy with/without disability, functional limitations, or chronic diseases, using prevalence-based Sullivan life tables.

RESULTS: Our results show that education coefficients from physical health and mortality models are similar for both Japan and American populations, and older Japanese have better mortality and health profiles.

DISCUSSION: Japan{\textquoteright}s compulsory national health service system since April 1961 and living arrangements with adult children may play an important role for its superior health profile compared with that of the United States.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Age Distribution, Aged, Cause of Death, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Educational Status, Employment, Family Characteristics, Female, Health Status, Health Surveys, Healthy Lifestyle, Humans, Japan, Life Expectancy, Life Tables, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Regression Analysis, Retirement, Sex Distribution, United States}, issn = {1552-6887}, doi = {10.1177/0898264316656505}, author = {Chi-Tsun Chiu and Mark D Hayward and Saito, Yasuhiko} } @article {8484, title = {A Global View on the Effects of Work on Health in Later Life.}, journal = {Gerontologist}, volume = {56 Suppl 2}, year = {2016}, month = {2016 Apr}, pages = {S281-92}, abstract = {

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: Work is an important environment shaping the aging processes during the adult years. Therefore, the cumulative and acute effects of work characteristics on late-life health deserve great attention. Given that population aging has become a global trend with ensuing changes in labor markets around the world, increased attention is paid to investigating the effects of the timing of retirement around the world and the macroeconomic benefits often associated with delaying retirement. It will be essential for societies with aging populations to maintain productivity given an aging workforce and for individuals it will be crucial to add healthy and meaningful years rather than just years to their lives.

DESIGN AND METHODS: We first describe the available evidence about participation of older workers (65+) in the labor force in high, middle, and low-income countries. Second, we discuss the individual-level and societal influences that might govern labor-force participation of older adults. Thirdly, we review evidence on the association between work on the one and physical, mental, and cognitive health in later life on the other.

RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS: Globally, both is true: work supports healthy aging and jeopordizes it. We draw implications for policymaking in terms of social protection, HR policies, and older employee employability.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aging, Employment, Humans, Public Policy, Retirement, Socioeconomic factors}, issn = {1758-5341}, doi = {10.1093/geront/gnw032}, url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26994267}, author = {Ursula M. Staudinger and Finkelstein, Ruth and Calvo, Esteban and Sivaramakrishnan, Kavita} } @article {8567, title = {Longitudinal Relationships Between Productive Activities and Functional Health in Later Years: A Multivariate Latent Growth Curve Modeling Approach.}, journal = {Int J Aging Hum Dev}, volume = {83}, year = {2016}, month = {2016 10}, pages = {418-40}, abstract = {

This study examined the longitudinal relationships between functional health in later years and three types of productive activities: volunteering, full-time, and part-time work. Using the data from five waves (2000-2008) of the Health and Retirement Study, we applied multivariate latent growth curve modeling to examine the longitudinal relationships among individuals 50 or over. Functional health was measured by limitations in activities of daily living. Individuals who volunteered, worked either full time or part time exhibited a slower decline in functional health than nonparticipants. Significant associations were also found between initial functional health and longitudinal changes in productive activity participation. This study provides additional support for the benefits of productive activities later in life; engagement in volunteering and employment are indeed associated with better functional health in middle and old age.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Aged, Aging, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Volunteers}, issn = {1541-3535}, doi = {10.1177/0091415016657557}, url = {http://ahd.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/07/21/0091415016657557.long}, author = {Choi, Eunhee and Tang, Fengyan and Turk, Phillip} } @article {6440, title = {Physical, Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Mediators of Activity Involvement and Health in Later Life.}, journal = {Res Aging}, volume = {38}, year = {2016}, month = {2016 Oct}, pages = {791-815}, abstract = {

The current study tests the indirect effect of activity-related physical activity, cognitive activity, social interaction, and emotional exchange on the relationship between activity involvement and health (physical and emotional) in later life. Longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study (N = 5,442) were used to estimate a series of linear regression models. We found significant indirect effects for social interaction and benefit to others (emotional exchange) on emotional health (depressive symptoms) and indirect effects for use of body and benefit to others (physical) on physical health (frailty). The most potent indirect effect associated with emotional and physical health was experienced by those engaged in all four domains (use of body, use of mind, social interaction, and benefit to others). While effect sizes are small and results should be interpreted with caution, findings shed light on ways in which public health interventions aimed toward increasing role engagement in later life could be improved.

}, keywords = {Aged, depression, Efficiency, Employment, Exercise, Female, Health Status, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Quality of Life, Volunteers}, issn = {1552-7573}, doi = {10.1177/0164027515606182}, url = {http://roa.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/09/30/0164027515606182.abstract}, author = {Matz-Costa, Christina and Dawn C Carr and Tay K. McNamara and Jacquelyn Boone James} } @article {8354, title = {Spousal labor market effects from government health insurance: Evidence from a veterans affairs expansion.}, journal = {J Health Econ}, volume = {45}, year = {2016}, note = {Times Cited: 0 0}, month = {2016 Jan}, pages = {63-76}, publisher = {45}, abstract = {

Measuring the total impact of health insurance receipt on household labor supply is important in an era of increased access to publicly provided and subsidized insurance. Although government expansion of health insurance to older workers leads to direct labor supply reductions for recipients, there may be spillover effects on the labor supply of uncovered spouses. While the most basic model predicts a decrease in overall household work hours, financial incentives such as credit constraints, target income levels, and the need for own health insurance suggest that spousal labor supply might increase. In contrast, complementarities of spousal leisure would predict a decrease in labor supply for both spouses. Utilizing a mid-1990s expansion of health insurance for U.S. veterans, we provide evidence on the effects of public insurance availability on the labor supply of spouses. Using data from the Current Population Survey and Health and Retirement Study, we employ a difference-in-differences strategy to compare the labor market behavior of the wives of older male veterans and non-veterans before and after the VA health benefits expansion. Although husbands{\textquoteright} labor supply decreases, wives{\textquoteright} labor supply increases, suggesting that financial incentives dominate complementarities of spousal leisure. This effect is strongest for wives with lower education levels and lower levels of household wealth and those who were not previously employed full-time. These findings have implications for government programs such as Medicare and Social Security and the Affordable Care Act.

}, keywords = {Employment, Female, Government Programs, Humans, Insurance, Health, Male, Middle Aged, Spouses, Surveys and Questionnaires, United States, Veterans}, issn = {1879-1646}, doi = {10.1016/j.jhealeco.2015.11.005}, author = {Melissa A. Boyle and Joanna N Lahey} } @article {8473, title = {What are the experiences of people with dementia in employment?}, journal = {Dementia (London)}, volume = {15}, year = {2016}, month = {2016 Mar}, pages = {147-61}, abstract = {

Statistics show that an increase in the statutory retirement age in the UK will mean that many more people will develop a dementia while still in employment. A review of the literature confirmed that there are no existing studies in the UK which examine this issue in any detail. The aim of this study was to investigate the experiences of people who develop a dementia while still in employment and to understand how they make sense of these experiences; therefore a qualitative explorative inquiry based on an Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis methodology was used. Interviews with five people who had developed a dementia while still in employment were carried out, with ages ranging from 58 to 74 years. Interview transcripts were analysed and four super-ordinate themes were identified: the realization that something is wrong; managing the situation in the workplace; trying to make sense of change; and coming to terms with retirement or unemployment. The results showed that people who develop a dementia while still in employment do not always receive the {\textquoteright}reasonable adjustments{\textquoteright} in the workplace to which they are entitled under the Equality Act (2010). Some of the participants felt that they were poorly treated by their workplace and described some distressing experiences. The study highlights the need for more effective specialized advice and support regarding employment issues and more research into the numbers of people in the UK that are affected by this issue.

}, keywords = {Aged, Alzheimer disease, Dementia, Vascular, Employment, Female, Humans, Interviews as Topic, Male, Middle Aged, Qualitative Research, United Kingdom, Work Performance}, issn = {1741-2684}, doi = {10.1177/1471301213519252}, url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24419354}, author = {Chaplin, Ruth and Davidson, Ian} } @article {8028, title = {An investigation of activity profiles of older adults.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {69}, year = {2014}, month = {2014 Sep}, pages = {809-21}, publisher = {69}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: In this study, we advance knowledge about activity engagement by considering many activities simultaneously to identify profiles of activity among older adults. Further, we use cross-sectional data to explore factors associated with activity profiles and prospective data to explore activity profiles and well-being outcomes.

METHOD: We used the core survey data from the years 2008 and 2010, as well as the 2009 Health and Retirement Study Consumption and Activities Mail Survey (HRS CAMS). The HRS CAMS includes information on types and amounts of activities. We used factor analysis and latent class analysis to identify activity profiles and regression analyses to assess antecedents and outcomes associated with activity profiles.

RESULTS: We identified 5 activity profiles: Low Activity, Moderate Activity, High Activity, Working, and Physically Active. These profiles varied in amount and type of activities. Demographic and health factors were related to profiles. Activity profiles were subsequently associated with self-rated health and depression symptoms.

DISCUSSION: The use of a 5-level categorical activity profile variable may allow more complex analyses of activity that capture the "whole person." There is clearly a vulnerable group of low-activity individuals as well as a High Activity group that may represent the "active ageing" vision.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Black or African American, Cohort Studies, Cross-Sectional Studies, Employment, Female, Florida, Health Surveys, Hispanic or Latino, Human Activities, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Motor Activity, Prospective Studies, Regression Analysis, United States}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbu002}, url = {http://psychsocgerontology.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2014/02/12/geronb.gbu002.abstract}, author = {Morrow-Howell, Nancy and Putnam, Michelle and Lee, Yung Soo and Jennifer C. Greenfield and Inoue, Megumi and Chen, Huajuan} } @article {8022, title = {Mental work demands, retirement, and longitudinal trajectories of cognitive functioning.}, journal = {J Occup Health Psychol}, volume = {19}, year = {2014}, note = {Export Date: 21 April 2014 Source: Scopus Article in Press}, month = {2014 Apr}, pages = {231-42}, publisher = {19}, abstract = {

Age-related changes in cognitive abilities are well-documented, and a very important indicator of health, functioning, and decline in later life. However, less is known about the course of cognitive functioning before and after retirement and specifically whether job characteristics during one{\textquoteright}s time of employment (i.e., higher vs. lower levels of mental work demands) moderate how cognition changes both before and after the transition to retirement. We used data from n = 4,182 (50\% women) individuals in the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative panel study in the United States, across an 18 year time span (1992-2010). Data were linked to the O*NET occupation codes to gather information about mental job demands to examine whether job characteristics during one{\textquoteright}s time of employment moderates level and rate of change in cognitive functioning (episodic memory and mental status) both before and after retirement. Results indicated that working in an occupation characterized by higher levels of mental demands was associated with higher levels of cognitive functioning before retirement, and a slower rate of cognitive decline after retirement. We controlled for a number of important covariates, including socioeconomic (education and income), demographic, and health variables. Our discussion focuses on pathways through which job characteristics may be associated with the course of cognitive functioning in relation to the important transition of retirement. Implications for job design as well as retirement are offered.

}, keywords = {Cognition, Employment, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, Stress, Psychological}, issn = {1939-1307}, doi = {10.1037/a0035724}, url = {http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84896104239andpartnerID=40andmd5=8a0c0422ba5b68927fdc926a3e8a25b4}, author = {Gwenith G Fisher and Stachowski, Alicia and Frank J Infurna and Jessica Faul and James Grosch and Lois E Tetrick} } @article {7762, title = {The influence of unpaid work on the transition out of full-time paid work.}, journal = {Gerontologist}, volume = {53}, year = {2013}, month = {2013 Feb}, pages = {92-101}, abstract = {

PURPOSE: Continued employment after retirement and engagement in unpaid work are both important ways of diminishing the negative economic effects of the retirement of baby boomer cohorts on society. Little research, however, examines the relationship between paid and unpaid work at the transition from full-time work. Using a resource perspective framework this study examines how engagement in unpaid work prior to and at the transition from full-time work influences whether individuals partially or fully retire.

DESIGN AND METHODS: This study used a sample of 2,236 Americans between the ages 50 and 68, who were interviewed between 1998 and 2008. Logistic regression was used to estimate transitioning into partial retirement (relative to full retirement) after leaving full-time work.

RESULTS: We found that the odds of transitioning into part-time work were increased by continuous volunteering (78\%) and reduced by starting parental (84\%), grandchild (41\%), and spousal (90\%) caregiving and unaffected by all other patterns of engagement in unpaid work.

IMPLICATIONS: Our findings suggest that volunteering is complementary with a transition to part-time work, and starting a new caregiving role at this transitioncreates a barrier to continued employment. In order to provide workers the opportunity to engage in the work force longer at the brink of retirement, it may be necessary to increase the support mechanisms for those who experience new caregiving responsibilities.

}, keywords = {Age Factors, Aged, Employment, Female, Humans, Interviews as Topic, Logistic Models, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, Salaries and Fringe Benefits, Volunteers, Work}, issn = {1758-5341}, doi = {10.1093/geront/gns080}, author = {Dawn C Carr and Ben Lennox Kail} } @article {7944, title = {Work stress and depressive symptoms in older employees: impact of national labour and social policies.}, journal = {BMC Public Health}, volume = {13}, year = {2013}, month = {2013 Nov 21}, pages = {1086}, publisher = {13}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND: Maintaining health and work ability among older employees is a primary target of national labour and social policies (NLSP) in Europe. Depression makes a significant contribution to early retirement, and chronic work-related stress is associated with elevated risks of depression. We test this latter association among older employees and explore to what extent indicators of distinct NLSP modify the association between work stress and depressive symptoms. We choose six indicators, classified in three categories: (1) investment in active labour market policies, (2) employment protection, (3) level of distributive justice.

METHODS: We use data from three longitudinal ageing studies (SHARE, HRS, ELSA) including 5650 men and women in 13 countries. Information on work stress (effort-reward imbalance, low work control) and depressive symptoms (CES-D, EURO-D) was obtained. Six NLSP indicators were selected from OECD databases. Associations of work stress (2004) with depressive symptoms (2006) and their modification by policy indicators were analysed using logistic multilevel models.

RESULTS: Risk of depressive symptoms at follow-up is higher among those experiencing effort-reward imbalance (OR: 1.55 95\% CI 1.27-1.89) and low control (OR: 1.46 95\% CI 1.19-1.79) at work. Interaction terms indicate a modifying effect of a majority of protective NLSP indicators on the strength of associations of effort - reward imbalance with depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS: Work stress is associated with elevated risk of prospective depressive symptoms among older employees from 13 European countries. Protective labour and social policies modify the strength of these associations. If further supported findings may have important policy implications.

}, keywords = {depression, Employment, Europe, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Public Policy, Risk Factors, Stress, Psychological, Surveys and Questionnaires}, issn = {1471-2458}, doi = {10.1186/1471-2458-13-1086}, author = {Lunau, T. and Morten Wahrendorf and Dragano, N. and Johannes Siegrist} } @article {7838, title = {Is working later in life good or bad for health? An investigation of multiple health outcomes.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {68}, year = {2013}, month = {2013 Sep}, pages = {807-15}, publisher = {68}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: To examine the mutual influences between changes in work status and multiple dimensions of health outcomes (immediate memory, physical disability, and depressive symptoms) over later years.

METHODS: We used a subsample of 8,524 older adults who participated in the Health and Retirement Study from 1998 to 2008 and were 62 years or older in 1998 to examine work status and health outcomes after controlling for age and background characteristics.

RESULTS: We present results of cross-lagged auto-regressive models. Work status (level of work) predicted subsequent residual changes in immediate memory over time, whereas immediate memory predicted subsequent residual changes in work status over time, even after controlling for physical disability and depressive symptoms. Similar results were indicated for the associations between work status and physical disability and depressive symptoms over time.

DISCUSSION: Consistent with social causation and social selection traditions, the findings support bi-directional associations among changes in work status (the level of work), immediate memory, physical disability, and depressive symptoms in later years. Practical implications are discussed.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Age Factors, Aged, depression, Educational Status, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Middle Aged, Neuropsychological tests, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbt069}, author = {Kandauda Wickrama and Catherine W. O{\textquoteright}Neal and Kyung H. Kwag and Lee, Tae K.} } @article {7738, title = {Chronic back pain among older construction workers in the United States: a longitudinal study.}, journal = {Int J Occup Environ Health}, volume = {18}, year = {2012}, month = {2012 Apr-Jun}, pages = {99-109}, publisher = {18}, abstract = {

This study assessed chronic back pain among older construction workers in the United States by analyzing data from the 1992-2008 Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a large-scale longitudinal survey. Fixed-effects methods were applied in the multiple logistic regression model to explore the association between back pain and time-varying factors (e.g., employment, job characteristics, general health status) while controlling for stable variables (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity). Results showed that about 40\% of older construction workers over the age of 50 suffered from persistent back pain or problems. Jobs involving a great deal of stress or physical effort significantly increased the risk of back disorders and longest-held jobs in construction increased the odds of back disorders by 32\% (95\% CI: 1{\textperiodcentered}04-1{\textperiodcentered}67). Furthermore, poor physical and mental health were strongly correlated with back problems. Enhanced interventions for construction workers are urgently needed given the aging workforce and high prevalence of back disorders in this industry.

}, keywords = {Back Pain, Employment, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Occupational Diseases, Occupations, United States}, issn = {2049-3967}, doi = {10.1179/1077352512Z.0000000004}, author = {Xiuwen S Dong and Wang, Xuanwen and Fujimoto, Alissa and Dobbin, Ronald} } @article {7689, title = {Coverage or costs: the role of health insurance in labor market reentry among early retirees.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {67}, year = {2012}, month = {2012 Jan}, pages = {113-20}, publisher = {67B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the impact of insurance coverage on the odds of returning to work after early retirement and the change in insurance coverage after returning to work.

METHOD: The Health and Retirement Study was used to estimate hierarchical linear models of transitions to full-time work and part-time work relative to remaining retired. A chi-square test was also used to assess change in insurance coverage after returning to work.

RESULTS: Insurance coverage was unrelated to the odds of transitioning to full-time work. However, relative to employer-provided insurance, private nongroup insurance increased the odds of transitioning to part-time work, whereas public insurance reduced the odds of making this transition. Additionally, after returning to work, insurance coverage increased among those who were without employer-provided insurance in retirement.

DISCUSSION: Results indicated that source of coverage may be more useful in explaining returns to part-time work than simply whether people have coverage at all. In other words, the mechanism underlying the positive relationship between insurance and returning to work appeared to be limited to those who return to work because of the cost of private nongroup insurance. Among these people, however, there was some evidence that they are able to secure new coverage once they return to work.

}, keywords = {Employment, Female, Health Benefit Plans, Employee, Health Surveys, Humans, Insurance Coverage, Insurance, Health, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, United States}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbr130}, url = {http://proquest.umi.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/pqdweb?did=2579962341andFmt=7andclientId=17822andRQT=309andVName=PQD}, author = {Ben Lennox Kail} } @article {7742, title = {The Disability burden of COPD.}, journal = {COPD}, volume = {9}, year = {2012}, month = {2012 Aug}, pages = {513-21}, abstract = {

Affecting an estimated 12.6 million people and causing over 100,000 deaths per year, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacts a heavy burden on American society. Despite knowledge of the impact of COPD on morbidity, mortality, and health care costs, little is known about the association of the disease with economic outcomes such as employment and the collection of disability. We quantify the impact of COPD on Americans aged 51 and older-in particular, their employment prospects and their likelihood of collecting federal disability benefits-by conducting longitudinal regression analysis using the Health and Retirement Study. Controlling for initial health status and a variety of sociodemographic factors, we find that COPD is associated with a decrease in the likelihood of employment of 8.6 percentage points (OR = 0.58, 95\% CI 0.50-0.67), from 44\% to 35\%. This association rivals that of stroke and is larger than those of heart disease, cancer, hypertension, and diabetes. Furthermore, COPD is associated with a 3.9 percentage point (OR 2.52, 95\% CI 2.00-3.17) increase in the likelihood of collecting Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI), from 3.2\% to 7.1\%, as well as a 1.7 percentage point (OR 2.87, 95\% CI 2.02-4.08) increase in the likelihood of collecting Supplemental Security Income (SSI), from 1.0\% to 2.7\%. The associations of COPD with SSDI and SSI are the largest of any of the conditions studied. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that COPD imposes a substantial burden on American society by inhibiting employment and creating disability.

}, keywords = {Aged, Cost of Illness, Disabled Persons, Employment, Female, Humans, Income, Insurance, Disability, Likelihood Functions, Logistic Models, Male, Middle Aged, Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive, Social Security, United States}, issn = {1541-2563}, doi = {10.3109/15412555.2012.696159}, author = {Thornton Snider, Julia and J. A. Romley and Ken S Wong and Zhang, Jie and Eber, Michael and Dana P Goldman} } @article {7756, title = {The effects of health shocks on employment and health insurance: the role of employer-provided health insurance.}, journal = {Int J Health Care Finance Econ}, volume = {12}, year = {2012}, month = {2012 Dec}, pages = {253-67}, abstract = {

Employment-contingent health insurance (ECHI) has been criticized for tying insurance to continued employment. Our research sheds light on two central issues regarding employment-contingent health insurance: whether such insurance "locks" people who experience a health shock into remaining at work; and whether it puts people at risk for insurance loss upon the onset of illness, because health shocks pose challenges to continued employment. We study how men{\textquoteright}s dependence on their own employer for health insurance affects labor supply responses and health insurance coverage following a health shock. We use the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) surveys from 1996 through 2008 to observe employment and health insurance status at interviews 2 years apart, and whether a health shock occurred in the intervening period between the interviews. All employed married men with health insurance either through their own employer or their spouse{\textquoteright}s employer, interviewed in at least two consecutive HRS waves with non-missing data on employment, insurance, health, demographic, and other variables, and under age 64 at the second interview are included in the study sample. We then limited the sample to men who were initially healthy. Our analytical sample consisted of 1,582 men of whom 1,379 had ECHI at the first interview, while 203 were covered by their spouse{\textquoteright}s employer. Hospitalization affected 209 men with ECHI and 36 men with spouse insurance. A new disease diagnosis was reported by 103 men with ECHI and 22 men with other insurance. There were 171 men with ECHI and 25 men with spouse employer insurance who had a self-reported health decline. Labor supply response differences associated with ECHI-with men with health shocks and ECHI more likely to continue working-appear to be driven by specific types of health shocks associated with future higher health care costs but not with immediate increases in morbidity that limit continued employment. Men with ECHI who have a self-reported health decline are significantly more likely to lose health insurance than men with insurance through a spouse. With the passage of health care reform, the tendency of men with ECHI as opposed to other sources of insurance to remain employed following a health shock may be diminished, along with the likelihood of losing health insurance.

}, keywords = {Adult, Aged, Employment, Health Benefit Plans, Employee, Health Status, Hospitalization, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Lung Diseases, Male, Neoplasms, Occupations, Retirement, Socioeconomic factors, Spouses}, issn = {1573-6962}, doi = {10.1007/s10754-012-9113-2}, author = {Cathy J. Bradley and David Neumark and Meryl Motika} } @article {7634, title = {Childhood health and labor market inequality over the life course.}, journal = {J Health Soc Behav}, volume = {52}, year = {2011}, note = {Haas, Steven A Glymour, M Maria Berkman, Lisa F AG023399/AG/NIA NIH HHS/United States Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov{\textquoteright}t United States Journal of health and social behavior J Health Soc Behav. 2011;52(3):298-313. doi: 10.1177/0022146511410431.}, month = {2011 Sep}, pages = {298-313}, publisher = {52}, abstract = {

The authors use data from the Health and Retirement Study{\textquoteright}s Earnings Benefit File, which links Health and Retirement Study to Social Security Administration records, to estimate the impact of childhood health on earnings curves between the ages of 25 and 50 years. They also investigate the extent to which diminished educational attainment, earlier onset of chronic health conditions, and labor force participation mediate this relationship. Those who experience poor childhood health have substantially diminished labor market earnings over the work career. For men, earnings differentials grow larger over the early to middle career and then slow down and begin to converge as they near 50 years of age. For women, earnings differentials emerge later in the career and show no evidence of convergence. Part of the child health earnings differential is accounted for by selection into diminished educational attainment, the earlier onset of chronic disease in adulthood, and, particularly for men, labor force participation.

}, keywords = {Child, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Income, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Econometric, Retirement, Social Class, Social Security, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {2150-6000}, doi = {10.1177/0022146511410431}, author = {Steven A Haas and M. Maria Glymour and Lisa F Berkman} } @article {7660, title = {Dynamic Inefficiencies in an Employment-Based Health Insurance System: Theory and Evidence.}, journal = {Am Econ Rev}, volume = {101}, year = {2011}, month = {2011 Dec}, pages = {3047-77}, publisher = {101}, abstract = {

We investigate the effects of the institutional settings of the US health care system on individuals{\textquoteright} life-cycle medical expenditures. Health is a form of general human capital; labor turnover and labor-market frictions prevent an employer-employee pair from capturing the entire surplus from investment in an employee{\textquoteright}s health. Thus, the pair underinvests in health during working years, thereby increasing medical expenditures during retirement. We provide empirical evidence consistent with the comparative statics predictions of our model using the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Our estimates suggest significant inefficiencies in health investment in the United States.

}, keywords = {Employment, Health Benefit Plans, Employee, Health Expenditures, Health Status, Humans, Income, Personnel Turnover, Retirement, United States}, issn = {0002-8282}, doi = {10.1257/aer.101.7.3047}, author = {Fang, H. and Alessandro Gavazza} } @article {7503, title = {Gender differences in health: results from SHARE, ELSA and HRS.}, journal = {Eur J Public Health}, volume = {21}, year = {2011}, month = {2011 Feb}, pages = {81-91}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND: We examine gender differences in health at ages 50 years and older in 11 European countries, England and the USA.

METHODS: We use the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement (SHARE) for 11 Continental European countries; the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) for the USA to examine gender differences in health behaviours, functioning problems, disability, disease prevalence and self-rated health.

RESULTS: Women in all countries are more likely than men to have disabling, non-lethal conditions including functioning problems [odds ratio (OR) indicating the effect of female is 1.57-2.43], IADL difficulties (OR 1.45-2.94), arthritis (OR 1.46-2.90) and depressive symptoms (OR 1.45-3.35). On the other hand, self-reported heart disease is more common among men (OR indicating effect of female ranges from 0.43 to 0.86). These differences are not eliminated by controlling for smoking behaviour and weight. Self-reported hypertension (OR 0.72-1.53) is generally more common among women; stroke and diabetes do not show consistent sex differences. While subjective assessment of health is poorer among women, this is not true when indicators of functioning, disability and diseases are controlled.

CONCLUSION: There is remarkable consistency in direction of gender differences in health across these 13 countries. The size of the differences is affected in many cases by the similarity in behaviours of men and women.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Aged, Aging, Body Weights and Measures, Chronic disease, Employment, Female, Global Health, Health Behavior, Health Status, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Self Report, Sex Factors}, issn = {1464-360X}, doi = {10.1093/eurpub/ckq022}, author = {Eileen M. Crimmins and Jung K Kim and Sole-Auro, Aida} } @article {7678, title = {The influence of changes in dental care coverage on dental care utilization among retirees and near-retirees in the United States, 2004-2006.}, journal = {Am J Public Health}, volume = {101}, year = {2011}, note = {Times Cited: 0 Manski, Richard J. Moeller, John F. St Clair, Patricia A. Schimmel, Jody Chen, Haiyan Pepper, John V.}, month = {2011 Oct}, pages = {1882-91}, publisher = {101}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: We examined dental care utilization transition dynamics between 2004 and 2006 in the context of changing dental coverage status.

METHODS: We used data from the Health and Retirement Study for persons aged 51 years and older to estimate a multivariable model of dental care use transitions with controls for dental coverage and retirement transitions and other potentially confounding covariates.

RESULTS: We found that Americans aged 51 years and older who lost dental coverage between the 2004 and 2006 survey periods were more likely to stop dental care use between periods, and those who gained coverage were more likely to start dental care use between periods, than those without coverage in both periods.

CONCLUSIONS: Dental coverage transitions and status have a strong effect on transitions in dental care use. Given that retirement is a time when many experience a loss of dental coverage, older adults may be at risk for sporadic dental care and even stopping use, leading to worse dental and potentially overall health.

}, keywords = {Age Factors, Aged, Dental Care, Employment, Female, Health Care Surveys, Humans, Insurance, Dental, Male, Medically Uninsured, Middle Aged, Retirement, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {1541-0048}, doi = {10.2105/AJPH.2011.300227}, author = {Richard J. Manski and John F Moeller and Patricia A St Clair and Jody Schimmel and Haiyan Chen and John V Pepper} } @article {7603, title = {Volunteer transitions among older adults: the role of human, social, and cultural capital in later life.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {66}, year = {2011}, month = {2011 Jul}, pages = {490-501}, publisher = {66B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: We aim to understand how human, social, and cultural capitals are associated with the volunteer process, that is, engagement (starting), intensity (number of hours), and cessation (stopping), among older adults.

METHOD: Data from the 2000 through 2008 Health and Retirement Study and the 2001 through 2009 Consumption and Activity Mail Survey provide a sample of 4,526 respondents. Random-effects pooled time series analyses incorporate not only the presence of various types of capital but also the quality of that capital.

RESULTS: Human and cultural capitals were positively associated with increased volunteer involvement. Effects of social capital (relationships in the family, employment status, and the community) depended on the quality of the relationships, not necessarily on their presence alone.

DISCUSSION: Results suggest that bolstering older adults{\textquoteright} capitals, particularly among lower socioeconomic status groups, can increase volunteer engagement and intensity and reduce cessation. Additionally, a variety of organizational policies including respite programs for caregivers and employer policies allowing employees to reduce their work hours might indirectly affect participation rates and commitment. Potential pools of volunteers exist in families, workplaces, and religious organizations, but more research is necessary to identify how to recruit and retain individuals in social networks where volunteer participatory rates are low.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aging, Caregivers, Community Participation, Cost of Illness, Educational Status, Employment, Female, Health Status, Health Surveys, Humans, Likelihood Functions, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Multivariate Analysis, Religion and Psychology, Social Environment, Social Identification, Social Support, Socioeconomic factors, United States, Volunteers}, issn = {1758-5368}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbr055}, author = {Tay K. McNamara and Guillermo Ernest Gonzales} } @article {7512, title = {Causes and consequences of early-life health.}, journal = {Demography}, volume = {47 Suppl}, year = {2010}, month = {2010}, pages = {S65-85}, publisher = {47}, abstract = {

We examine the consequences of child health for economic and health outcomes in adulthood, using height as a marker of childhood health. After reviewing previous evidence, we present a conceptual framework that highlights data limitations and methodological problems that complicate the study of this topic. We then present estimates of the associations between height and a range of outcomes--including schooling, employment, earnings, health, and cognitive ability--measured in five data sets from early to late adulthood. These results indicate that, on average, taller individuals attain higher levels of education. Height is also positively associated with better economic, health, and cognitive outcomes. These associations are only partially explained by the higher average educational attainment of taller individuals. We then use data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Children and Young Adults survey to document the associations between health, cognitive development, and growth in childhood. Even among children with the same mother, taller siblings score better on cognitive tests and progress through school more quickly. Part of the differences found between siblings arises from differences in their birth weights and lengths attributable to mother{\textquoteright}s behaviors while pregnant. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that childhood health influences health and economic status throughout adulthood.

}, keywords = {Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Body Height, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Employment, Family Characteristics, Female, Health Status, Humans, Income, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Regression Analysis, Socioeconomic factors, United Kingdom}, issn = {0070-3370}, doi = {10.1353/dem.2010.0007}, author = {Case, Anne and Paxson, Christina} } @article {7536, title = {Dental care coverage and retirement.}, journal = {J Public Health Dent}, volume = {70}, year = {2010}, month = {2010 Winter}, pages = {1-12}, publisher = {70}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: To examine the convergence of an aging population and a decreased availability of dental care coverage using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS).

METHODS: We calculate national estimates of the number and characteristics of those persons age 51 years and above covered by dental insurance by labor force, retirement status, and source of coverage. We also estimate a multivariate model controlling for potentially confounding variables.

RESULTS: We show that being in the labor force is a strong predictor of having dental coverage. For older retired adults not in the labor force, the only source for dental coverage is either a postretirement health benefit or spousal coverage.

CONCLUSIONS: Dental care, generally not covered in Medicare, is an important factor in the decision to seek dental care. It is important to understand the relationship between retirement and dental coverage in order to identify the best ways of improving oral health and access to care among older Americans.

}, keywords = {Aged, Employment, ethnicity, Female, Humans, Income, Insurance, Dental, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Statistical, Multivariate Analysis, Retirement, United States}, issn = {0022-4006}, doi = {10.1111/j.1752-7325.2009.00137.x}, author = {Richard J. Manski and John F Moeller and Jody Schimmel and Patricia A St Clair and Haiyan Chen and Larry S. Magder and John V Pepper} } @article {7545, title = {Dental care utilization and retirement.}, journal = {J Public Health Dent}, volume = {70}, year = {2010}, note = {Manski, Richard J Moeller, John Chen, Haiyan St Clair, Patricia A Schimmel, Jody Magder, Larry Pepper, John V R01 AG026090-01A2/AG/NIA NIH HHS/United States R01 AG026090-03/AG/NIA NIH HHS/United States U01AG009740/AG/NIA NIH HHS/United States Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural United States Nihms172468 J Public Health Dent. 2010 Winter;70(1):67-75.}, month = {2010 Winter}, pages = {67-75}, publisher = {70}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: The authors examine the relationship of dental care coverage, retirement, and utilization in an aging population using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS).

METHODS: The authors estimate dental care use as a function of dental care coverage status, retirement, and individual and household characteristics. They also estimate a multivariate model controlling for potentially confounding variables.

RESULTS: The authors show that that the loss of income and dental coverage associated with retirement may lead to lower use rates but this effect may be offset by other unobserved aspects of retirement including more available free time leading to an overall higher use rate.

CONCLUSIONS: The authors conclude from this study that full retirement accompanied by reduced income and dental insurance coverage produces lower utilization of dental services. However, they also show that retirement acts as an independent variable, whereas income, coverage, and free time (unobserved) act as intervening variables.

}, keywords = {Aged, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Dental Care, Employment, ethnicity, Female, health policy, Humans, Income, Insurance, Dental, Leisure activities, Logistic Models, Male, Middle Aged, Multivariate Analysis, Odds Ratio, Retirement, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {0022-4006}, doi = {10.1111/j.1752-7325.2009.00145.x}, author = {Richard J. Manski and John F Moeller and Haiyan Chen and Patricia A St Clair and Jody Schimmel and Larry S. Magder and John V Pepper} } @article {7493, title = {Direct and indirect effects of obesity on U.S. labor market outcomes of older working age adults.}, journal = {Soc Sci Med}, volume = {71}, year = {2010}, note = {Using Smart Source Parsing pp. Jul Elsevier Science, Amsterdam The Netherlands}, month = {2010 Jul}, pages = {405-413}, publisher = {71}, abstract = {

In this paper, we study the impact of obesity on labor market decisions of older working age adults in USA. Labor market outcomes are defined as any one of three: working; not working due to a disability; or not working due to an early retirement. Based on existing medical literature, we deduce that obesity can largely impact labor market decisions directly through impairment of bodily functions and indirectly by being a risk factor for various diseases like hypertension, arthritis, etc. We use data from the US Health and Retirement Study on older adults who were no more than 64 years of age in 2002. In our modeling effort, we employ two estimation strategies. We first estimate a model in which employment outcome in 2002 is a function of weight status in 1992. In the second strategy, controlling for time-invariant individual heterogeneity, we first consider the impact of obesity on bodily impairments and chronic illnesses; then, we consider the impact of such impairments and illnesses on labor market outcomes. Our results indicate that, for men, obesity class 2 and 3 increases both the probability of taking an early retirement and the incidence of disability by 1.5 percentage points. For women, we find that obesity class 2 and 3 increases the probability of taking an early retirement by 2.5 percentage points and the incidence of disability by 1.7 percentage points.

}, keywords = {Chronic disease, Disabled Persons, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Obesity, Retirement, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, United States}, issn = {1873-5347}, doi = {10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.038}, author = {F. Renna and Thakur, Nidhi} } @article {7375, title = {Bridge employment and retirees{\textquoteright} health: a longitudinal investigation.}, journal = {J Occup Health Psychol}, volume = {14}, year = {2009}, note = {PMID: 19839658}, month = {2009 Oct}, pages = {374-89}, publisher = {14}, abstract = {

The present study examined the relationship between bridge employment and retirees{\textquoteright} health outcomes (i.e., major diseases, functional limitations, and mental health). We used a nationally representative sample of 12,189 retirees from the first 4 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that compared with full retirement, engaging in bridge employment either in a career field or in a different field was associated with fewer major diseases and functional limitations, whereas engaging in career bridge employment was associated with better mental health. The findings highlight the health benefits of engaging in bridge employment for retirees. The practical implications of this study are discussed at both the individual and policy levels. Limitations of the current findings are also noted in conjunction with future research directions.

}, keywords = {Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Interviews as Topic, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, United States}, issn = {1939-1307}, doi = {10.1037/a0015285}, author = {Zhan, Yujie and Wang, Mo and Liu, Songqi and Kenneth S. Shultz} } @article {7355, title = {Does job loss cause ill health?}, journal = {Health Econ}, volume = {18}, year = {2009}, month = {2009 Sep}, pages = {1075-89}, publisher = {18}, abstract = {

This study estimates the effect of job loss on health for near elderly employees based on longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study. Previous studies find a strong negative correlation between unemployment and health. To control for possible reverse causality, this study focuses on people who were laid off for an exogenous reason - the closure of their previous employers{\textquoteright} business. I find no causal effect of exogenous job loss on various measures of physical and mental health. This suggests that the inferior health of the unemployed compared to the employed could be explained by reverse causality.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Age Factors, Cohort Studies, Cross-Sectional Studies, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Smoking, Socioeconomic factors}, issn = {1099-1050}, doi = {10.1002/hec.1537}, author = {Salm, Martin} } @article {7380, title = {Financial status, employment, and insurance among older cancer survivors.}, journal = {J Gen Intern Med}, volume = {24 Suppl 2}, year = {2009}, month = {2009 Nov}, pages = {S438-45}, publisher = {24}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND: Few data are available about the socioeconomic impact of cancer for long-term cancer survivors.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate socioeconomic outcomes among older cancer survivors compared to non-cancer patients.

DATA SOURCE: 2002 Health and Retirement Study.

STUDY DESIGN: We studied 964 cancer survivors of > 4 years and 14,333 control patients who had never had cancer from a population-based sample of Americans ages >or= 55 years responding to the 2002 Health and Retirement Study.

MEASURES: We compared household income, housing assets, net worth, insurance, employment, and future work expectations.

ANALYSES: Propensity score methods were used to control for baseline differences between cancer survivors and controls.

RESULTS: Female cancer survivors did not differ from non-cancer patients in terms of income, housing assets, net worth, or likelihood of current employment (all P > 0.20); but more were self-employed (25.0\% vs. 17.7\%; P = 0.03), and fewer were confident that if they lost their job they would find an equally good job in the next few months (38.4\% vs. 45.9\%; P = 0.03). Among men, cancer survivors and noncancer patients had similar income and housing assets (both P >or= 0.10) but differed somewhat in net worth (P = 0.04). Male cancer survivors were less likely than other men to be currently employed (25.2\% vs. 29.7\%) and more likely to be retired (66.9\% vs. 62.2\%), although the P value did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.06). Men were also less optimistic about finding an equally good job in the next few months if they lost their current job (33.5\% vs. 46.9\%), although this result was not significant (P = 0.11).

CONCLUSIONS: Despite generally similar socioeconomic outcomes for cancer survivors and noncancer patients ages >or=55 years, a better understanding of employment experience and pessimism regarding work prospects may help to shape policies to benefit cancer survivors.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Cohort Studies, Data collection, Employment, Female, Financing, Personal, Humans, Income, Insurance Coverage, Insurance, Health, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Neoplasms, Socioeconomic factors, Survivors}, issn = {1525-1497}, doi = {10.1007/s11606-009-1034-5}, author = {Norredam, Marie and Meara, Ellen and Landrum, Mary Beth and Haiden A. Huskamp and Nancy L. Keating} } @article {7399, title = {Work expectations, realizations, and depression in older workers.}, journal = {J Ment Health Policy Econ}, volume = {12}, year = {2009}, note = {Journal Article}, month = {2009 Dec}, pages = {175-86}, publisher = {12}, abstract = {

AIMS OF THE STUDY: In this study, we explore whether ex ante work expectations, conditional on work force status at age 62, affect self-reported depressive symptoms at age 62.

METHODS: Our sample includes 4,387 participants of the Health and Retirement Study, a national longitudinal survey of individuals born between 1931 and 1941, and their spouses. The sample is composed of workers who were less than 62 years of age at the study baseline (1992), and who had reached age 62 by the current study endpoint (2004). This sample enables comparison of realized work status with prior expectations. We estimate the impact of expected work status on self-reported depressive symptoms using negative binomial and logistic regression methods. Sex-stratified regressions are estimated according to full-time work status at age 62. The primary outcome is a summary measure of self-reported depressive symptoms based on a short form of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale. The explanatory variable of interest is the subjective probability of working full-time at the age of 62, reported by participants at the 1992 HRS baseline. We control for baseline socioeconomic and demographic variables as well as life events and changes in macroeconomic conditions that occur within the study timeframe.

RESULTS: Among participants who were not working full time at age 62, we find that men who provided a higher ex ante likelihood of full-time employment at 62 had significantly worse self-reported depressive symptoms than men who provided a lower ex ante likelihood. A similar effect was not found for women. Among participants who were working full time at age 62, we do not find a statistical relationship between ex ante expectations and age-62 self-reported depressive symptoms, for either men or women.

DISCUSSION: The results suggest that an earlier-than-anticipated work exit is detrimental to mental health for men nearing normal retirement age. Previous research has demonstrated that stress is a causal factor in depression, and a premature labor force departure, which is inconsistent with an individual{\textquoteright}s cognitive judgment of a suitably timed exit from work, is a psychologically stressful transition that could realistically induce depression. This may be especially true of men, who in this cohort, have stronger labor force attachment than women and tend to define their roles by their occupation. The advantages of the study include nationally representative data, a baseline depression control that circumscribes the effect of endogeneity, and a reasonably long follow-up. Despite our efforts to infer causality, unmeasured factors may account for part of the observed relationship. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH POLICY AND RESEARCH: Depression is a disease that, if untreated, may have serious consequences for behavioral, medical, and social well-being. Our results suggest that further research should aim to estimate the magnitude of clinically severe and mild depression in populations of those who retire earlier than expected, especially for men. Such information could help health care planners and policy makers to direct resources to the mental health needs of men who retire prematurely.

}, keywords = {Age Factors, depression, Employment, Female, Health Behavior, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Psychometrics, Retirement, Sex Factors, Stress, Psychological}, issn = {1091-4358}, url = {URL:http://www.icmpe.org/test1/journal/journal.htm Publisher{\textquoteright}sURL}, author = {Tracy Falba and Jody L Sindelar and William T Gallo} } @article {7242, title = {Antecedents of bridge employment: a longitudinal investigation.}, journal = {J Appl Psychol}, volume = {93}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Jul}, pages = {818-30}, publisher = {98}, abstract = {

Bridge employment is the labor force participation pattern increasingly observed in older workers between their career jobs and their complete labor force withdrawal. It serves as a transition process from career employment to full retirement. Typical bridge employment decisions include full retirement, career bridge employment, and bridge employment in a different field. In the current study, 3 dominant theories (i.e., role theory, continuity theory, and life course perspective) on retirement processes were reviewed. On the basis of these theories, the authors proposed 4 categories of antecedents (i.e., individual attributes, job-related psychological variables, family-related variables, and a retirement-planning-related variable) of different types of bridge employment decisions. The authors used longitudinal data of a large, nationally representative sample from the Health and Retirement Study (F. Juster \& R. Suzman, 1995) to test the current hypotheses. These data were analyzed with multinomial logistic regression, and most of the hypotheses were supported by the results. The implications of this study are discussed at both theoretical and practical levels.

}, keywords = {Aged, Career Mobility, Employment, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Job Satisfaction, Male, Middle Aged, Psychological Theory, Retirement, Surveys and Questionnaires}, issn = {0021-9010}, doi = {10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.818}, author = {Wang, Mo and Zhan, Yujie and Liu, Songqi and Kenneth S. Shultz} } @article {7225, title = {Depression and retirement in late middle-aged U.S. workers.}, journal = {Health Serv Res}, volume = {43}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Apr}, pages = {693-713}, publisher = {43}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether late middle-aged U.S. workers with depression are at an increased risk for retirement.

DATA SOURCE: Six biennial waves (1992-2002) of the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative panel survey of noninstitutionalized 51-61-year-olds and their spouses started in 1992.

STUDY DESIGN: Workers aged 53-58 years in 1994 were followed every 2 years thereafter, through 2002. Depression was coded as lagged time-dependent variables measuring active depression and severity of depression. The main outcome variable was a transition to retirement which was measured using two distinct definitions to capture different stages in the retirement process: (1) Retirement was defined as a transition out of the labor force in the sample of all labor force participants (N=2,853); (2) In addition a transition out of full time work was used as the retirement definition in the subset of labor force participants who were full time workers (N=2,288).

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In the sample of all labor force participants, the presence of active depression significantly increased the hazard of retirement in both late middle-aged men (adjusted OR: 1.37 [95 percent CI 1.05, 1.80]) and women (adjusted OR: 1.40 [95 percent CI 1.10, 1.78]). For women, subthreshold depression was also a significant predictor of retirement. In the sample of full time workers, the relationship between depression and retirement was considerably weaker for women yet remained strong for men.

CONCLUSIONS: Depression and depressive symptoms were significantly associated with retirement in late middle-aged U.S. workers. Policymakers must consider the potentially adverse impact of these labor market outcomes when estimating the cost of untreated depression and evaluating the value of interventions to improve the diagnosis and treatment of depression.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Comorbidity, depression, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, Severity of Illness Index, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {0017-9124}, doi = {10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00782.x}, author = {Jalpa A Doshi and Cen, Liyi and Daniel Polsky} } @article {7238, title = {Divergent pathways? Racial/ethnic differences in older women{\textquoteright}s labor force withdrawal.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {63}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 May}, pages = {S122-34}, publisher = {63B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate how women{\textquoteright}s labor force withdrawal behavior varies across race/ethnicity and to identify life course factors that generate these differences.

METHODS: Using a sample of 7,235 women from the 1992-2004 Health and Retirement Study, we estimated cross-sectional multinomial logit models to explore racial/ethnic differences in labor force status at first interview. We then examined the prospective risk of exiting the labor force via retirement, work disability, or death using discrete-time hazard models.

RESULTS: Black and Hispanic women had twice the odds of Whites of being work-disabled at first interview. Whereas younger minorities had lower odds of being retired at first interview, older minorities had higher odds. The prospective results showed that both Blacks and Hispanics had higher risks of work disability but not of retirement or of dying in the labor force. Overall, racial/ethnic differences in mid- and later life work behavior stemmed primarily from disparities in life course capital.

DISCUSSION: This study shows that substantial racial/ethnic disparities in labor force exit behavior have already emerged by midlife. It is important to note that distinguishing between alternative pathways out of the labor force demonstrates that work disability is a more common experience for Black and Hispanic women than for Whites.

}, keywords = {Aged, Black People, Demography, Disability Evaluation, Disabled Persons, Employment, ethnicity, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Middle Aged, Retirement, United States}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/63.3.s122}, author = {Tyson H Brown and David F Warner} } @article {7228, title = {Dynamics of work disability and pain.}, journal = {J Health Econ}, volume = {27}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Mar}, pages = {496-509}, publisher = {27}, abstract = {

This paper investigates the role of pain dynamics in subsequently affecting dynamics in self-reported work disability and the dynamics of employment patterns of older workers in the US. Not only is pain prevalence quite high, there also are many transitions in and out of pain at these ages. We investigate pain and its relationship to health (work disability) and work in a dynamic panel data model, using six biennial waves from the Health and Retirement Study. We find that the dynamics of the presence of pain are central to understanding the dynamics of self-reported work disability and through this pathway, pain dynamics are also a significant factor in the dynamic patterns of employment.

}, keywords = {Aged, Disabled Persons, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Statistical, pain, United States}, issn = {0167-6296}, doi = {10.1016/j.jhealeco.2007.05.002}, author = {Arie Kapteyn and James P Smith and Arthur H.O. vanSoest} } @article {7203, title = {Long-term effects of cancer survivorship on the employment of older workers.}, journal = {Health Serv Res}, volume = {43}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Feb}, pages = {193-210}, publisher = {43}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the long-term effects of cancer survivorship on the employment of older workers.

DATA SOURCES: Primary data for 504 subjects who were 55-65 in 2002 and were working when diagnosed with cancer in 1997-1999, and secondary data for a comparison group of 3,903 similarly aged workers in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) in 2002.

STUDY DESIGN: Three employment outcomes (working, working full time, usual hours per week) were compared between the two groups. Both Probit/Tobit regressions and propensity score matching were used to adjust for potentially confounding differences between groups. Sociodemographic characteristics, baseline employment characteristics, and the presence of other health conditions were included as covariates.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS: Four telephone interviews were conducted annually with cancer survivors identified from tumor registries at four large hospitals in Pennsylvania and Maryland. Many of the questions were taken from the HRS to facilitate comparisons.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Cancer survivors of both genders worked an average of 3-5 hours less per week than HRS controls. For females, we found significant effects of survivorship on the probability of working, the probability of working full-time, and hours. For males, survivorship affected the probability of full-time employment and hours without significantly reducing the probability of working. For both genders, these effects were primarily attributable to new cancers. There were no significant effects on the employment of cancer-free survivors.

CONCLUSIONS: Survivors with recurrences or second primary tumors may particularly benefit from employment support services and workplace accommodation. Reassuringly, any long-term effects on the employment of cancer-free survivors are fairly small.

}, keywords = {Age Factors, Aged, Data collection, Demography, Disease-Free Survival, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Maryland, Middle Aged, Neoplasms, Pennsylvania, Probability, Prospective Studies, Registries, Retrospective Studies, Sickness Impact Profile, Survivors, Time Factors}, issn = {0017-9124}, doi = {10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00752.x}, author = {Pamela F. Short and Joseph J. Vasey and John R. Moran} } @article {7236, title = {Parent caregiving choices of middle-generation Blacks and Whites in the United States.}, journal = {J Aging Health}, volume = {20}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Aug}, pages = {560-82}, publisher = {20}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: This study compares how middle-generation caregivers and non-caregivers differ by race and explores racial differences in activities of daily living (ADL), instrumental activities of daily living (IADL), and financial assistance that middle-generation caregivers provide for their parents.

METHOD: Using 2000 Health and Retirement Study data, racially stratified descriptive analyses and logistic regression models for ADL, IADL, and financial assistance are presented.

RESULTS: Parental need and race influence support, with similar patterns of Black and White ADL support, but racial differences in IADL and financial support. Having more children motivates Whites to increase IADL support and reduce financial support; more children decreases Blacks{\textquoteright} IADL support. Sibling caregiver networks influence IADL and financial support in ways that vary by race. The number employed is a key determinant for Blacks for all support, but only influences White ADL support.

DISCUSSION: The findings of this article indicate the importance of sample stratification by race and that employment or other subsidies may aid the expansion of caregiving by middle-generation adults.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Black People, Caregivers, Employment, Family Characteristics, Financial Support, Humans, Intergenerational Relations, Logistic Models, Parent-Child Relations, Parents, Siblings, Socioeconomic factors, United States, White People}, issn = {0898-2643}, doi = {10.1177/0898264308317576}, author = {Shelley I. White-Means and Rose M. Rubin} } @article {7223, title = {Productive activities and psychological well-being among older adults.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {63}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Mar}, pages = {S64-72}, publisher = {63B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to test whether paid work and formal volunteering reduce the rate of mental health decline in later life.

METHODS: Using four waves of Health and Retirement Study data collected from a sample of 7,830 individuals aged 55 to 66, I estimated growth curve models to assess the effects of productive activities on mental health trajectories. The analytical strategy took into account selection processes when examining the beneficial effects of activities. The analyses also formally attended to the sample attrition problem inherent in longitudinal studies.

RESULTS: The results indicated that activity participants generally had better mental health at the beginning of the study. Full-time employment and low-level volunteering had independent protective effects against decline in psychological well-being. Joint participants of both productive activities enjoyed a slower rate of mental health decline than single-activity participants.

DISCUSSION: The results are consistent with activity theory and further confirm the role accumulation perspective. The finding that full-time work combined with low-level volunteering is protective of mental health reveals the complementary effect of volunteering to formal employment. Methodological and theoretical implications are discussed.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Aged, Cohort Studies, depression, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Psychological Theory, Psychomotor Performance, Quality of Life, Social Environment, Volunteers}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/63.2.s64}, author = {Hao, Yanni} } @article {7246, title = {Spousal caregiving in late midlife versus older ages: implications of work and family obligations.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {63}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Jul}, pages = {S229-S238}, publisher = {63B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: This study examined life-stage differences in the provision of care to spouses with functional impairment.

METHODS: We examined 1,218 married adults aged 52 and older from the 2000 wave of the Health and Retirement Study who received impairment-related help with at least one activity of daily living. We examined the differential likelihood that spouses served as primary caregiver and the hours of care provided by spousal primary caregivers by life stage.

RESULTS: We found that late middle-aged care recipients were more likely than their older counterparts to receive the majority of their care from their spouse but received fewer hours of spousal care, mostly when spouses worked full time. Competing demands of caring for children or parents did not affect the amount of care provided by a spouse.

DISCUSSION: Late middle-aged adults with functional limitations are more likely than older groups to be married and cared for primarily by spouses; however, they may be particularly vulnerable to unmet need for care. As the baby boom generation ages, retirement ages increase, and federal safety nets weaken, people with health problems at older ages may soon find themselves in the same caregiving predicament as those in late middle age.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Caregivers, Employment, Family Relations, Female, Gender Identity, Health Surveys, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Mobility Limitation, Spouses, Time Factors, United States}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/63.4.s229}, author = {Julie C Lima and Susan M Allen and Goldscheider, Frances and Intrator, Orna} } @article {7206, title = {Work disability associated with cancer survivorship and other chronic conditions.}, journal = {Psychooncology}, volume = {17}, year = {2008}, month = {2008 Jan}, pages = {91-7}, publisher = {17}, abstract = {

The long-term effects of cancer and its treatment on employment and productivity are a major concern for the 40\% of cancer survivors in the U.S. who are working age. This study{\textquoteright}s objectives were (1) to quantify the increase in work disability attributable to cancer in a cohort of adult survivors who were an average of 46 months post-diagnosis and (2) to compare disability rates in cancer survivors to individuals with other chronic conditions. Data from the Penn State Cancer Survivor Study (PSCSS) and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) were compared. The PSCSS sample included 647 survivors age 55-65, diagnosed at four medical centers in Pennsylvania and Maryland. There were 5988 similarly aged subjects without cancer in the HRS. Adjusted odds ratios for work disability were estimated for cancer survivorship, heart disease, stroke, diabetes, lung disease, and arthritis/rheumatism with multivariate logistic regression. Even for cancer-free survivors, the adjusted disability rate was significantly higher in comparison to adults with no chronic conditions (female OR = 1.94; male OR = 1.89). There were few significant differences between disability rates for cancer and other conditions. The elevated disability rate is another argument for viewing cancer survivorship as a chronic condition potentially requiring a broad range of psychosocial services.

}, keywords = {Adult, Aged, Chronic disease, Disability Evaluation, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Maryland, Middle Aged, Neoplasms, Pennsylvania, Survivors}, issn = {1057-9249}, doi = {10.1002/pon.1194}, author = {Pamela F. Short and Joseph J. Vasey and BeLue, Rhonda} } @article {7128, title = {Does money buy better health? Unpacking the income to health association after midlife.}, journal = {Health (London)}, volume = {11}, year = {2007}, month = {2007 Apr}, pages = {199-226}, publisher = {11}, abstract = {

This article estimates the effect of household financial resources on health after midlife using models that minimize health-related selectivity and unobserved heterogeneity bias. I focus on the self-rated health and mobility limitations of adults transitioning into retirement over six panels of the Health and Retirement Study (1992-2002; age 51-61 at wave one; N = 7602). Standard regression models that adjust for health-related selection with prospective and retrospective controls suggest a significant influence of long-term income on health, but an insignificant influence of short-term income. Further adjustment for unobserved fixed effects also suggests that short-term income is insignificant. Sizable recent and long-term health feedbacks to income for a portion of the HRS respondents underscore the need to control for the confounding influence of health over the lifecourse. Together these results suggest that adults after midlife are heterogeneous with respect to the causal and selective processes generating the observed association between income and health.

}, keywords = {Aged, Attitude to Health, Employment, Health Status Indicators, Humans, Income, Middle Aged, Mobility Limitation, Models, Econometric, Retirement, Self Concept, Sociology, Medical, United States}, issn = {1363-4593}, doi = {10.1177/1363459307074694}, author = {Berry, Brent M.} } @article {7130, title = {Predicting the changes in depressive symptomatology in later life: how much do changes in health status, marital and caregiving status, work and volunteering, and health-related behaviors contribute?}, journal = {J Aging Health}, volume = {19}, year = {2007}, month = {2007 Feb}, pages = {152-77}, publisher = {19}, abstract = {

This study examined the unique effects of four variable groups on changes in older adults{\textquoteright} depressive symptoms for a 2-year period: (1) baseline health and disability status, (2) changes in health and disability since baseline, (3) stability and changes in marital and caregiving status and in work and volunteering, and (4) stability and changes in health-related behaviors. With data from the 1998 and 2000 interview waves of the Health and Retirement Study, the authors used gender-separate multistep (hierarchical) residualized regression analyses in which the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D) score at follow-up is modeled as a function of the effect of each group of independent variables. As hypothesized, changes in health, disability, marital, and caregiving status explained a larger amount of variance than the existing and stable conditions, although each group of variables explained a relatively small amount (0.3-3.4\%) of variance in the follow-up CES-D score.

}, keywords = {Aged, Caregivers, depression, Employment, Female, Forecasting, Health Behavior, Health Status, Humans, Male, Marital Status, Middle Aged, Netherlands, Regression Analysis, Sweden, United States, Volunteers}, issn = {0898-2643}, doi = {10.1177/0898264306297602}, author = {Namkee G Choi and Bohman, Thomas M.} } @article {7129, title = {Use of preventive care by the working poor in the United States.}, journal = {Prev Med}, volume = {44}, year = {2007}, month = {2007 Mar}, pages = {254-9}, publisher = {44}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: Examine the association between poverty and preventive care use among older working adults.

METHOD: Cross-sectional analysis of the pooled 1996, 1998 and 2000 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative sample of older community-dwelling adults, studying self-reported use of cervical, breast, and prostate cancer screening, as well as serum cholesterol screening and influenza vaccination. Adults with incomes within 200\% of the federal poverty level were defined as poor.

RESULTS: Among 10,088 older working adults, overall preventive care use ranged from 38\% (influenza vaccination) to 76\% (breast cancer screening). In unadjusted analyses, the working poor were significantly less likely to receive preventive care. After adjustment for insurance coverage, education, and other socio-demographic characteristics, the working poor remained significantly less likely to receive breast cancer (RR 0.92, 95\% CI, 0.86-0.96), prostate cancer (RR 0.89, 95\% CI, 0.81-0.97), and cholesterol screening (RR 0.91, 95\% CI, 0.86-0.96) than the working non-poor, but were not significantly less likely to receive cervical cancer screening (RR 0.96, 95\% CI, 0.90-1.01) or influenza vaccination (RR 0.92, 95\% CI, 0.84-1.01).

CONCLUSION: The older working poor are at modestly increased risk for not receiving preventive care.

}, keywords = {Cost of Illness, Cross-Sectional Studies, Employment, Female, Health Promotion, Health Services Accessibility, Health Services Needs and Demand, Humans, Male, Mass Screening, Middle Aged, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Poverty, Preventive Health Services, Risk Assessment, Socioeconomic factors, United States, Vulnerable Populations}, issn = {0091-7435}, doi = {10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.11.006}, author = {Joseph S. Ross and Bernheim, Susannah M. and Elizabeth H Bradley and Teng, Hsun-Mei and William T Gallo} } @article {7115, title = {The effect of recurrent involuntary job loss on the depressive symptoms of older US workers.}, journal = {Int Arch Occup Environ Health}, volume = {80}, year = {2006}, month = {2006 Nov}, pages = {109-16}, publisher = {80}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to assess whether recurrent involuntary job loss among US workers nearing retirement resulted in increasingly less severe changes in depressive symptoms with successive job losses.

METHODS: With data drawn from the US Health and Retirement Survey (HRS), we used repeated measures longitudinal analysis to investigate the effect of recurrent job loss on follow-up depressive symptoms, measured up to 2 years following job loss. Study participants include 617 individuals, aged 51-61 years at the 1992 study baseline, who had at least one job loss between 1990 and 2000. Our primary outcome variable was a continuous measure of depressive symptoms, constructed from the 8-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) battery administered at every HRS wave. A second, dichotomous outcome, derived from the continuous measure, measured clinically relevant depressive symptoms. The exposure (recurrent job loss) was defined by binary dummy variables representing two and three/four job losses. All job losses were the result of either plant closing or layoff.

RESULTS: Our main finding indicates that, after relevant covariates are controlled, compared to one job loss, two job losses result in a modest increase in the level depressive symptoms (not significant) at two-year follow-up. Three or more job losses result, on average, in a decline in depressive symptoms to a level near pre-displacement assessment (not significant). Somewhat in contrast, two job losses were found to be associated with increased risk of clinically relevant depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS: The principal finding confirms our hypothesis that, among US workers nearing retirement, repeated exposure to job separation results in diminished effects on mental health. Adaptation to the job loss stressor may underlie the observed response, although other explanations, including macroeconomic developments, are possible.

}, keywords = {Adaptation, Physiological, depression, Employment, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, Stress, Psychological, United States}, issn = {0340-0131}, doi = {10.1007/s00420-006-0108-5}, author = {William T Gallo and Elizabeth H Bradley and Teng, Hsun-Mei and Stanislav V Kasl} } @article {7092, title = {Increased wealth and income as correlates of self-assessed retirement.}, journal = {J Gerontol Soc Work}, volume = {47}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {175-201}, publisher = {47}, abstract = {

This study examined whether retirement implies complete withdrawal from the labor force and the role that increased wealth and income play in regard to the nature of retirement. Data came from the Health \& Retirement Study, Waves 1-5. Findings indicated that most study sample pre-retirees remained in the labor force as they moved into what are considered the normal retirement years. As they moved on average from 50+ years of age to 60+ years of age, increasing percentages of study sample pre-retirees reported themselves as completely retired. Those who viewed themselves as completely retired were far less likely to work than those who did not view themselves as completely retired. Of particular importance was the finding that increased income in 2000 decreased the likelihood of self-reported complete retirement. Equally important was the finding that increased assets had no effect on retirement status with the exception of survey year 1998 when increased assets decreased the likelihood of viewing oneself as completely retired. Findings suggested that pro-work retirement policies aimed at increasing labor force participation among pre-retirees and increasing the normal retirement age can be effective. Five pro-work policies were discussed.

}, keywords = {Aged, Data collection, Employment, Female, Financing, Personal, Humans, Income, Interviews as Topic, Male, Middle Aged, Motivation, Organizational Policy, Pensions, Retirement, Self-Assessment, Social Security, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {0163-4372}, doi = {10.1300/J083v47n01_11}, author = {Caputo, Richard K.} } @article {7447, title = {Postretirement earnings relative to preretirement earnings: gender and racial differences.}, journal = {J Gerontol Soc Work}, volume = {47}, year = {2006}, note = {Using Smart Source Parsing pp. May Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks CA}, month = {2006}, pages = {63-82}, publisher = {32}, abstract = {

As the social security program comes under increasing financial pressure in the coming decades, the federal government will encourage elderly people to continue to work. Data from the Social Security Administration indicate that earnings are already a sizable component of retirement income. But there is public concern about how women and minorities will fare economically in this changing policy environment. To what extent can women and minorities keep earning money after they reach retirement age? This article presents the results of a study that investigated the postretirement earnings, relative to the preretirement earnings, of women and minorities, and compared the results with those for men and whites. The major finding, based on regression analyses, was that women{\textquoteright}s postretirement earnings, relative to their preretirement earnings, were greater than those of men. Furthermore, the regression results indicate that nonwhites{\textquoteright} postretirement earnings could not be predicted by their preretirement earnings or by any of the independent variables used in the study, including age, gender, education, marital status, number of children, occupation, and preretirement earnings.

}, keywords = {Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Data collection, Employment, Female, Humans, Income, Male, Men, Minority Groups, Pensions, Retirement, Salaries and Fringe Benefits, Sex Factors, Social Security, Time Factors, United States, White People, women}, issn = {0163-4372}, doi = {10.1300/J083v47n03_05}, author = {Martha N. Ozawa and Hong, Baeg-Eui} } @article {7097, title = {Retirement patterns from career employment.}, journal = {Gerontologist}, volume = {46}, year = {2006}, month = {2006 Aug}, pages = {514-23}, publisher = {46}, abstract = {

PURPOSE: This article investigates how older Americans leave their career jobs and estimates the extent of intermediate labor force activity (bridge jobs) between full-time work on a career job and complete labor-force withdrawal.

DESIGN AND METHODS: Using data from the Health and Retirement Study, we explored the work histories and retirement patterns of a cohort of retirees aged 51 to 61 in 1992 during a 10-year period in both cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts. We examined determinants of retirement patterns in a multinomial logistic regression model.

RESULTS: We found that a majority of older Americans with career jobs retire gradually, in stages, rather than all at once. We also found that the utilization of bridge jobs was more common among younger respondents, respondents without defined-benefit pension plans, and respondents at both the lower and upper ends of the wage distribution.

IMPLICATIONS: Older Americans are now working longer than pre-1980s trends would have predicted. Given concerns about the traditional sources of retirement income (Social Security, employer pensions, and prior savings), older Americans may have to rely more on earnings. This article suggests that many are already doing so by moving to bridge jobs after leaving their career employment.

}, keywords = {Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Career Choice, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Income, Male, Middle Aged, Pensions, Retirement, Social Security, United States}, issn = {0016-9013}, doi = {10.1093/geront/46.4.514}, author = {Kevin E. Cahill and Michael D. Giandrea and Joseph F. Quinn} } @article {7040, title = {The impact of diabetes on employment and work productivity.}, journal = {Diabetes Care}, volume = {28}, year = {2005}, month = {2005 Nov}, pages = {2662-7}, publisher = {28}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to longitudinally examine the effect of diabetes on labor market outcomes.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Using secondary data from the first two waves (1992 and 1994) of the Health and Retirement Study, we identified 7,055 employed respondents (51-61 years of age), 490 of whom reported having diabetes in wave 1. We estimated the effect of diabetes in wave 1 on the probability of working in wave 2 using probit regression. For those working in wave 2, we modeled the relationships between diabetic status in wave 1 and the change in hours worked and work-loss days using ordinary least-squares regressions and modeled the presence of health-related work limitations using probit regression. All models control for health status and job characteristics and are estimated separately by sex.

RESULTS: Among individuals with diabetes, the absolute probability of working was 4.4 percentage points less for women and 7.1 percentage points less for men relative to that of their counterparts without diabetes. Change in weekly hours worked was not statistically significantly associated with diabetes. Women with diabetes had 2 more work-loss days per year compared with women without diabetes. Compared with individuals without diabetes, men and women with diabetes were 5.4 and 6 percentage points (absolute increase), respectively, more likely to have work limitations.

CONCLUSIONS: This article provides evidence that diabetes affects patients, employers, and society not only by reducing employment but also by contributing to work loss and health-related work limitations for those who remain employed.

}, keywords = {Diabetes Mellitus, Efficiency, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Multivariate Analysis, Odds Ratio, United States, Work}, issn = {0149-5992}, doi = {10.2337/diacare.28.11.2662}, author = {Tunceli, Kaan and Cathy J. Bradley and Nerenz, David and L Keoki Williams and Pladevall, Manel and Elston, Lafata J.} } @article {7035, title = {Labor market, financial, insurance and disability outcomes among near elderly Americans with depression and pain.}, journal = {J Ment Health Policy Econ}, volume = {8}, year = {2005}, month = {2005 Dec}, pages = {219-28}, publisher = {8}, abstract = {

BACKGROUND: The economic burden of depression has been documented, but the role of comorbid conditions is unclear. Depression and comorbid pain are particularly common, are associated with worse clinical outcomes and require different care than "pure{\textquoteright}{\textquoteright} depression. Does this comorbidity account for a large share of the adverse social outcomes attributed to depression?

AIMS OF STUDY: We analyzed the relationship between depression and comorbid pain, and labor market, financial, insurance and disability outcomes among Americans aged 55-65.

METHODS: Cross-sectional data were used from Wave 3 of the Health and Retirement Survey, a nationally representative sample of individuals aged 55-65 surveyed in 1996. Multivariate regression analyses, controlling for socio-demographics and chronic health conditions, estimated the associations between depression and pain, and economic outcomes. Outcomes included: employment and retirement status, household income, total medical expenditures, government health insurance, social security, limitations in activities of daily living (ADLs), and health limitations affecting work. Primary explanatory variables included the presence of severe pain, mild/moderate pain, or absence of pain, with or without depression.

RESULTS: Compared to depression alone, depression and comorbid pain was associated with worse labor market (non-employment, retirement), financial (total medical expenditures), insurance (government insurance, social security) and disability outcomes (limitations in ADLs, health limitations affecting work), after covariate adjustment (p

IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH CARE PROVISION AND USE: The depressed with comorbid pain appear to experience greater burden through increased costs and worse functioning and may require different management than those with depression alone. The depressed with comorbid pain may benefit from treatment practices and guidelines that address the duality of these conditions throughout the process of care. IMPLICATION FOR HEALTH POLICIES: The depressed with comorbid pain were more likely to receive government support than depression alone. Given the central role of employer-sponsored health insurance in the U.S., they may have worse access to health care because they leave employment or retire earlier. With the evolving state of Medicare, broad formulary access to mental health treatments might be considered.

IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Further research should focus on causality of depression and comorbid pain on economic outcomes. Depression research should consider the heterogeneity of this disorder in outcomes assessment.

}, keywords = {Aged, Cost of Illness, Cross-Sectional Studies, depression, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, pain, United States}, issn = {1091-4358}, author = {Tian, Haijun and Robinson, Rebecca L. and Sturm, Roland} } @article {7051, title = {Men who work at age 70 or older.}, journal = {J Gerontol Soc Work}, volume = {45}, year = {2005}, month = {2005}, pages = {41-63}, publisher = {45}, abstract = {

The federal policy on older workers has shifted from the encouragement of early withdrawal from the labor force to the encouragement of continuous participation in the labor force. In this light, it is instructive to investigate the backgrounds of elderly people who work at age 70 or older. This article presents the findings of a study, using data from the 1993 Asset and Health Dynamics of the Oldest Old Study, that investigated the effects of health, economic conditions (net worth, employer-provided pensions, and supplemental medical insurance coverage), education, and spouse{\textquoteright}s work status on the probability of working among men aged 70 or older. The study addressed the probability of working, the probability of working fulltime and of working part-time, and the probability of being self-employed and of being employed by others. Implications for policy are discussed.

}, keywords = {Aged, Employment, Health Status, Humans, Logistic Models, Male, Multivariate Analysis, Public Policy, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {0163-4372}, doi = {10.1300/J083v45n04_04}, author = {Martha N. Ozawa and Terry Y S Lum} } @article {6928, title = {Honeymoons and joint lunches: effects of retirement and spouse{\textquoteright}s employment on depressive symptoms.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {59}, year = {2004}, month = {2004 Sep}, pages = {P233-45}, publisher = {59B}, abstract = {

With hypotheses derived from a life course perspective in conjunction with life event stress and role theories, we examine whether a spouse{\textquoteright}s employment and length of retirement affect a person{\textquoteright}s postretirement depressive symptoms and whether such effects differ by gender. Analyses use pooled data from Waves 1-4 of the Health and Retirement Survey, using a subsample of married individuals who either remained continuously employed over time or completely retired since the Wave 1 interviews (N = 2,695). Recently retired men seem to be negatively affected by their spouses{\textquoteright} continuous employment when compared with men whose wives were continuously not employed. In contrast, spouses{\textquoteright} joint retirement has a beneficial influence on both recently retired and longer-retired men. However, for recently retired men, the positive effect of wives{\textquoteright} retirement seems to be contingent on spouses{\textquoteright} enjoyment of joint activities. Among women, effects of spouses{\textquoteright} employment occur only among very recently retired wives (0-6 months). These wives report more depressive symptoms if their spouses were already nonemployed prior to wives{\textquoteright} retirement. These results demonstrate the complexity of retirement adaptation processes and suggest that marital context plays an important role in retirement well-being.

}, keywords = {Adaptation, Psychological, Aged, Aging, Data collection, depression, Employment, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Retirement, Sex Factors, Spouses}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/59.5.p233}, author = {Maximiliane E Szinovacz and Adam Davey} } @article {6912, title = {The impact of diabetes on workforce participation: results from a national household sample.}, journal = {Health Serv Res}, volume = {39}, year = {2004}, note = {Social Security Administration/Michigan Retirement Research Center Grant UM01-11}, month = {2004 Dec}, pages = {1653-69}, publisher = {39}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: Diabetes is a highly prevalent condition that results in substantial morbidity and premature mortality. We investigated how diabetes-associated mortality, disability, early retirement, and work absenteeism impacts workforce participation.

DATA SOURCE: We used the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a national household sample of adults aged 51-61 in 1992, as a data source.

STUDY DESIGN: We conducted cross-sectional analyses on the baseline HRS data, and longitudinal analyses using data from eight years of follow-up. We used two-part regression models to estimate the adjusted impact of diabetes on workforce participation, and then estimated the economic impact of diabetes-related losses in productivity.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Diabetes is a significant predictor of lost productivity. The incremental lost income due to diabetes by 1992 was 60.0 billion US dollars over an average diabetes duration of 9.7 years. From 1992 to 2000, diabetes was responsible for 4.4 billion US dollars in lost income due to early retirement, 0.5 billion US dollars due to increased sick days, 31.7 billion US dollars due to disability, and 22.0 US dollars billion in lost income due to premature mortality, for a total of 58.6 billion dollars in lost productivity, or 7.3 billion US dollars per year.

CONCLUSIONS: In the U.S. population of adults born between 1931 and 1941, diabetes is associated with a profound negative impact on economic productivity. By 1992, an estimated 60 billion US dollars in lost productivity was associated with diabetes; additional annual losses averaged 7.3 billion US dollars over the next eight years, totaling about 120 billion US dollars by the year 2000. Given the rising prevalence of diabetes, these costs are likely to increase substantially unless countered by better public health or medical interventions.

}, keywords = {Chronic disease, Cohort Studies, Cost of Illness, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diabetes Mellitus, Disabled Persons, Efficiency, Employment, Female, Health Services Research, Health Status Indicators, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, United States}, issn = {0017-9124}, doi = {10.1111/j.1475-6773.2004.00311.x}, author = {Sandeep Vijan and Rodney A. Hayward and Kenneth M. Langa} } @article {6970, title = {Race, gender, and the retirement decisions of people ages 60 to 80: prospects for age integration in employment.}, journal = {Int J Aging Hum Dev}, volume = {59}, year = {2004}, month = {2004}, pages = {255-86}, publisher = {59}, abstract = {

UNLABELLED: Demographic projections have prompted concerns about the potential economic burden of an aging population. This article, drawing on the 1998 Health and Retirement Study, explores ways in which race, gender, and age moderate the effects of various factors on labor force participation among people ages 60 to 80. Key findings center on health, education, and non-wage income. First, the effect of low non-wage income is weaker at older ages due to higher levels of functional disability. Second, the effect of low education is stronger for women, who perceive their chances of finding employment as low. Third, the effect of health is weaker for blacks, as they are less likely to find steady employment regardless of health.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS: Employer flexibility in number of hours worked might make sense for workers close to retirement age, while job search and training programs might be preferable for workers past the typical retirement age.

}, keywords = {Age Distribution, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Black People, Educational Status, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Income, Logistic Models, Male, Middle Aged, Retirement, Sex Distribution, White People}, issn = {0091-4150}, doi = {10.2190/GE24-03MX-U34P-AMNH}, author = {Tay K. McNamara and Williamson, John B.} } @article {6890, title = {Determinants of stability and changes in self-reported work disability among older working-age populations.}, journal = {J Aging Soc Policy}, volume = {15}, year = {2003}, month = {2003}, pages = {11-31}, publisher = {15}, abstract = {

Data from the Health and Retirement Study, 1992-1994, were used to analyze (1) the prevalence and incidence of self-reported work disability among older working-age populations over a two-year period, and (2) the effect of the stability/changes in physical and functional health conditions, controlling for socioeconomic and occupational characteristics, on the stability/changes in self-reported work ability/disability. Findings show a high rate of transitions into and out of work-disabled status over the two-year period. Findings also show that, although objective physical and functional health problems and low self-ratings of health at wave 1 were significant determinants of self-reported work disability at wave 1, most subsequent changes in objective physical and functional health conditions over the two-year period were not significantly associated with the changes in self-report of work disability between wave 1 and wave 2. Especially, improved health conditions were not significantly associated with regained work ability between the two waves. Of the demographic variables, female gender significantly increased the likelihood of reporting work disability at wave 2, and being Black or Hispanic significantly decreased the likelihood of reporting regained work ability at wave 2. Research and policy implications of the findings are discussed.

}, keywords = {Disabled Persons, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Self Disclosure, Surveys and Questionnaires}, issn = {0895-9420}, doi = {10.1300/J031v15n01_02}, author = {Namkee G Choi} } @article {6865, title = {The labor market consequences of race differences in health.}, journal = {Milbank Q}, volume = {81}, year = {2003}, month = {2003}, pages = {441-73}, publisher = {81}, keywords = {Adult, Age Distribution, Age Factors, Attitude to Health, Black or African American, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Employment, Female, Health Services Needs and Demand, Health Status Indicators, Humans, Indians, North American, Male, Middle Aged, Sex Distribution, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic factors, United States, White People}, issn = {0887-378X}, doi = {10.1111/1468-0009.t01-1-00063}, author = {John Bound and Timothy A Waidmann and Michael Schoenbaum and Bingenheimer,Jeffrey B.} } @article {5548, title = {Self-Employment Trends and Patterns Among Older U.S. Workers}, number = {WR-136}, year = {2003}, institution = {RAND Corporation}, address = {Santa Monica, CA}, abstract = {Although self-employment is an important labor force phenomenon at older ages, there is a paucity of studies that examine the patterns of self-employment among older U.S. workers. With the leading edge of the baby boom cohort reaching retirement years, the rising rates of self employment with age suggest that it is important to have a solid understanding of who is self employed at older ages and how patterns of self-employment may be changing over time. Using cross-sectional time-series data from the annual Current Population Survey from 1968 to 2002 and cross-sectional data from the Health and Retirement Study from 1998, we examine the trend in rates of self-employment among workers age 50 and above. We describe the characteristics of older self-employed workers, in total and for subgroups, and compare them with their wage and salary counterparts.}, keywords = {Employment, Entrepeneurship, Unemployment}, url = {http://www.rand.org/publications/WR/WR136/WR136.pdf}, author = {Lynn A Karoly and Julie M Zissimopoulos} } @article {6832, title = {Breast cancer and women{\textquoteright}s labor supply.}, journal = {Health Serv Res}, volume = {37}, year = {2002}, month = {2002 Oct}, pages = {1309-28}, publisher = {37}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of breast cancer on women{\textquoteright}s labor supply. DATE SOURCE/STUDY SETTING: Using the 1992 Health and Retirement Study, we estimate the probability of working using probit regression and then, for women who are employed, we estimate regressions for average weekly hours worked using ordinary least squares (OLS). We control for health status by using responses to perceived health status and comorbidities. For a sample of married women, we control for spouses{\textquoteright} employer-based health insurance. We also perform additional analyses to detect selection bias in our sample.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We find that the probability of breast cancer survivors working is 10 percentage points less than that for women without breast cancer. Among women who work, breast cancer survivors work approximately three more hours per week than women who do not have cancer. Results of similar magnitude persist after health status is controlled in the analysis, and although we could not definitively rule out selection bias, we could not find evidence that our results are attributable to selection bias.

CONCLUSIONS: For some women, breast cancer may impose an economic hardship because it causes them to leave theirjobs. However, for women who survive and remain working, this study failed to show a negative effect on hours worked associated with breast cancer. Perhaps the morbidity associated with certain types and stages of breast cancer and its treatment does not interfere with work.

}, keywords = {Breast Neoplasms, Comorbidity, Cost of Illness, Decision making, Employment, Family Characteristics, Female, Health Benefit Plans, Employee, Health Status, Humans, Marital Status, Middle Aged, Probability, Selection Bias, Survivors, United States, Women, Working}, issn = {0017-9124}, doi = {10.1111/1475-6773.01041}, author = {Cathy J. Bradley and Bednarek, Heather and David Neumark} } @article {6789, title = {Breast cancer survival, work, and earnings.}, journal = {J Health Econ}, volume = {21}, year = {2002}, month = {2002 Sep}, pages = {757-79}, publisher = {21}, abstract = {

Relying on data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) linked to longitudinal social security earnings data, we examine differences between breast cancer survivors and a non-cancer control group in employment, hours worked, wages, and earnings. Overall, breast cancer has a negative impact on employment. However, among survivors who work, hours of work, wages, and earnings are higher compared to women in the control group. We explore possible biases underlying these estimates, focusing on selection, but cannot rule out a causal interpretation. Our research points to heterogeneous labor market responses to breast cancer, and shows that breast cancer does not appear to be debilitating for women who remain in the work force.

}, keywords = {Breast Neoplasms, Cohort Studies, Diagnostic Tests, Routine, Efficiency, Employment, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Mammography, Middle Aged, Models, Econometric, Probability, Research Design, Retirement, Salaries and Fringe Benefits, Social Security, Survivors, United States, Women, Working}, issn = {0167-6296}, doi = {10.1016/s0167-6296(02)00059-0}, author = {Cathy J. Bradley and Bednarek, Heather and David Neumark} } @article {12175, title = {Economic measures in the Health and Retirement Study}, year = {2002}, publisher = {National Institute on Aging}, address = {Bethesda, MD}, keywords = {Assets, consumption, Employment, Income, pay, Pension}, author = {James Banks} } @article {6803, title = {Individual consequences of volunteer and paid work in old age: health and mortality.}, journal = {J Health Soc Behav}, volume = {43}, year = {2002}, month = {2002 Dec}, pages = {490-509}, publisher = {43}, abstract = {

The impacts of the productive social activities of volunteer and paid work on health have rarely been investigated among the oldest Americans despite a recent claim for their beneficial effect (Rowe and Kahn 1998). This paper used data from Waves 3 and 4 of the Asset and Health Dynamics among the Oldest Old (AHEAD) Study to (1) investigate the impact of these activities on health measured as self-reported health and activities of daily living (ADL) functioning limitations and to (2) explore possible causal mechanisms. Using multinomial logistic regression analysis, amounts of volunteer and paid work over a minimum of 100 annual hours self-reported at Wave 3 were related to poor health and death as competing risks measured at Wave 4, controlling for health measured at Wave 2 and for other predictors of poor health and death. Findings suggest that performing more than 100 annual hours of volunteer work and of paid work have independent and significant protective effects against subsequent poor health and death. Additional analyses suggest that the quantity of volunteer and paid work beyond 100 annual hours is not related to health outcomes and that physical exercise and mental health measured as cognitive functioning and depressive symptoms explain not entirely overlapping parts of the relationship between productive activities and health.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Employment, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Mortality, Multivariate Analysis, Prospective Studies, United States, Volunteers}, issn = {0022-1465}, doi = {10.2307/3090239}, author = {Luoh, M. and A. Regula Herzog} } @article {6733, title = {Life events and alcohol consumption among mature adults: a longitudinal analysis.}, journal = {J Stud Alcohol}, volume = {62}, year = {2001}, month = {2001 Jul}, pages = {501-8}, publisher = {62}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: Four waves of the Health and Retirement Study were used to examine changes in alcohol consumption co-occurring and following stress associated with major health, family and employment events.

METHOD: The final sample consisted of 7,731 (3,907 male) individuals between the ages of 51 and 61 at baseline. We used multinomial logit analysis to study associations between important life events and changes in alcohol consumption over a 6-year study period. Interactions between stressful life events, gender and problem drinking were also evaluated.

RESULTS: Most persons (68\%) did not change their use of alcohol over the entire 6 years. Hospitalization and onset of a chronic condition were associated with decreased drinking levels. Retirement was associated with increased drinking. Widowhood was associated with increased drinking but only for a short time. Getting married or divorced was associated with both increases and decreases in drinking, with a complex lag structure. A history of problem drinking influenced the association between certain life events (e.g., divorce and retirement) and changes in drinking. Gender modified the association between losing a spouse and changes in drinking.

CONCLUSIONS: Even after controlling for problem drinking history, social support and coping skills, changes in drinking behavior were related to several life events occurring over a 6-year period for a national cohort of individuals in late middle-age. The magnitude of these relationships, however, varied by gender and problem drinking history.

}, keywords = {Adaptation, Psychological, Aged, Alcohol Drinking, Employment, Family, Health Status, Humans, Life Change Events, Longitudinal Studies, Middle Aged, Social Support, Stress, Psychological}, issn = {0096-882X}, doi = {10.15288/jsa.2001.62.501}, author = {Perreira, Krista M. and Frank A Sloan} } @article {6759, title = {The role of job-related rewards in retirement planning.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {56}, year = {2001}, month = {2001 May}, pages = {P160-9}, publisher = {56B}, abstract = {

The authors used data from the first wave of the Health and Retirement Study ( F. Juster and R. Suzman 1995) to evaluate whether certain job-related gratifications might reduce retirement planning. Three definitions of retirement planning were evaluated and then regressed separately on a set of variables that included 3 types of job-related satisfactions (intrinsic gratification, positive social relations, and ascendance in the workplace) and 7 covariates: education, age, sex, health, marital status, race, and pension eligibility. Findings indicated that jobs high in ascendance were related to an increase in certain types of retirement planning, but jobs high in intrinsic rewards and positive social relations were related to less planning, regardless of how planning was defined. The findings suggest that information about work-related rewards may be useful in targeting individuals who might benefit from retirement planning programs, in developing planning programs to help workers realize more complex retirement plans, and in assisting employers who hope to retain older workers.

}, keywords = {Career Mobility, Decision making, Employment, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Florida, Health Surveys, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Job Satisfaction, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Planning Techniques, Regression Analysis, Retirement, Reward, Salaries and Fringe Benefits, Sampling Studies}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/56.3.p160}, author = {Karl Kosloski and David J Ekerdt and Stanley DeViney} } @article {6677, title = {Health insurance and retirement behavior: evidence from the health and retirement survey.}, journal = {J Health Econ}, volume = {19}, year = {2000}, month = {2000 Jul}, pages = {529-39}, publisher = {19}, abstract = {

This paper studies the role of health insurance in the retirement decisions of older workers. As policymakers consider mechanisms for how to increase access to affordable health insurance for the near elderly, considerations of the potential labor force implications of such policies will be important to consider--potentially inducing retirements just at a time when the labor force is shrinking. Using data from the 1992 and 1996 waves of the Health and Retirement Survey, this study demonstrates that access to post-retirement health insurance has a large effect on retirement. Among older male workers, those with retiree health benefit offers are 68\% more likely to retire (and those with non-employment based insurance are 44\% more likely to retire) than their counterparts who would lose employment-based health insurance upon retirement. In addition, the study demonstrated that in retirement models, when retiree health benefits are controlled for, the effects of pension coverage are reduced, suggesting that these effects may have been overestimated in the prior literature.

}, keywords = {Aged, Career Mobility, Data collection, Decision making, Employment, Health Services Accessibility, Humans, Insurance, Health, Male, Retirement, Social Class, United States}, issn = {0167-6296}, doi = {10.1016/s0167-6296(00)00038-2}, author = {Jeannette Rogowski and Lynn A Karoly} } @article {6707, title = {Pathways to retirement: patterns of labor force participation and labor market exit among the pre-retirement population by race, Hispanic origin, and sex.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {55}, year = {2000}, month = {2000 Jan}, pages = {S14-27}, publisher = {55B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: This study examines the pre-retirement labor force participation behavior of Black, White, and Hispanic men and women to determine how patterns of labor market exit differ among groups.

METHODS: We combine data from the first and second waves of the Health and Retirement Study and apply multinomial logit regression techniques to model labor force status in the first wave of the HRS and change over time.

RESULTS: Black, Hispanic, and female elderly persons experience more involuntary job separation in the years immediately prior to retirement, and the resulting periods of joblessness often eventuate in "retirement" or labor force withdrawal. Minority disadvantage in human capital, health, and employment characteristics accounts for a large part of racial and ethnic differences in labor force withdrawal. Nevertheless, Black men and Hispanic women experience more involuntary labor market exits than Whites with similar socioeconomic and demographic characteristics.

DISCUSSION: Workers most vulnerable to labor market difficulties during their youth confront formidable obstacles maintaining their desired level of labor force attachment as they approach their golden years. This has significant policy implications for the contours of gender and race/ethnic inequality among elderly persons, particularly as life expectancy and the size of the minority elderly population continue to increase.

}, keywords = {Aged, Black or African American, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Employment, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Logistic Models, Male, Middle Aged, Personnel Downsizing, Regression Analysis, Retirement, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic factors, United States, White People}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/55.1.s14}, author = {Chenoa Flippen and Tienda, Marta} } @article {6660, title = {Multiple roles and well-being among midlife women: testing role strain and role enhancement theories.}, journal = {J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci}, volume = {54}, year = {1999}, month = {1999 Nov}, pages = {S329-38}, publisher = {54B}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: Research on women{\textquoteright}s multiple roles frequently adopts one of two perspectives: role strain, which argues that assuming multiple roles is detrimental to mental well-being, or role enhancement, which argues that engaging in multiple roles enhances mental well-being. We argue that the relationship between role occupancy and well-being is manifested through multiple dimensions of role experiences. We investigate the association between depressive symptomatology and various dimensions of the roles of wife, mother, paid worker, and informal caregiver to aging parents.

METHODS: Data are from the 1992 wave of the Health and Retirement Study. Depressive symptomatology, measured by a subset of the CES-D scale, is the dependent variable. To assess the robustness of findings relative to different functional forms of the dependent variable, we estimate multiple regression, log-linear regression, and multinomial logit models. Independent variables include demographic characteristics, measures of role occupancy, role demands, and role satisfaction.

RESULTS: Although the number of roles women assume affects their reports of depressive symptoms, once the demand and satisfaction associated with these roles is controlled, number has no effect; that is, the effect of the number of roles is indirect.

DISCUSSION: Our results highlight the importance of women{\textquoteright}s perceptions of the quality of their roles in relation to their overall well-being. Future investigations of women{\textquoteright}s multiple roles should examine how roles may provide rewards, impose constraints, or generate conflict, as well as the extent to which the willingness to assume multiple roles and the reported levels of role satisfaction and mental well-being may be jointly endogenous.

}, keywords = {Caregivers, depression, Employment, Female, Humans, Marriage, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Psychological Theory, Role, Women{\textquoteright}s Health}, issn = {1079-5014}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/54b.6.s329}, url = {https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10625968/}, author = {Reid, Jennifer and Melissa A. Hardy} } @article {5390, title = {Retirement patterns and bridge jobs in the 1990s.}, journal = {EBRI Issue Brief}, number = {206}, year = {1999}, month = {1999 Feb}, pages = {1-22}, publisher = {Employee Benefit Research Institute}, address = {Washington, D.C.}, abstract = {

During most of the post-World War II period, American men have been leaving the labor force at earlier and earlier ages. Evidence suggests that this trend has been under way for more than a century. However, in the mid-1980s, this trend came to an abrupt halt. Male labor force participation rates have been flat since 1985, and have actually increased over the past several years. Understanding these issues is especially important given the looming increase in the Social Security normal retirement age to 67 and the possibility of even more increases in the ages of eligibility under Social Security and Medicare reform. Because of the influx of married women into the labor market in the post-World War II period, older women{\textquoteright}s participation rates did not decline as men{\textquoteright}s did. In contrast, their rates were relatively steady, rising or falling very slowly. Since the mid-1980s, however, older women{\textquoteright}s participation rates have increased significantly. Many more older men and women are working today than the pre-1986 trends would have suggested. Many older Americans leave the labor force gradually, utilizing "bridge jobs" between employment on a full-time career job and complete labor force withdrawal. These bridge jobs are often part-time, often in a new line of work, and sometimes involve a switch from wage and salary work to self-employment. Estimates suggest that between one-third and one-half of older Americans will work on a bridge job before retiring completely, and for these workers retirement is best viewed as a process, not as a single event. These changes in retirement behavior are consistent with societal changes that have altered the relative attractiveness of work and leisure late in life. Mandatory retirement has been outlawed for most American workers. Social Security has become more age-neutral, no longer penalizing the average worker who wants to continue working after age 65. An increasing proportion of employer pension coverage has been in defined contribution plans, which do not contain the age-specific retirement incentives that many defined benefit plans do. The composition of jobs has shifted from manufacturing to service occupations. Americans are living longer and healthier lives, and many look forward to years to productive activity after age 65. These structural changes have been accompanied by an important cyclical factor: the strength of the American economy over the past decade. This has increased the demand for all types of labor, including older workers. Evidence suggests that there is more than this cyclical factor at work, however, and that new attitudes about work late in life are developing. Labor supply decisions late in life are correlated in expected ways with the individual{\textquoteright}s health (measured in several ways), age, and pension and health insurance status. Retirement patterns in America are much richer and more varied than the stereotypical one-step view of retirement suggests. Public policy is changing in ways that make continued work late in life more likely. If employers are willing to provide flexible job opportunities to meet the needs of these potential employees, then society can tap a growing pool of older, experienced, and willing workers for years to come.

}, keywords = {Aged, Attitude, Career Mobility, Data collection, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Multivariate Analysis, Retirement, United States}, issn = {0887-137X}, author = {Joseph F. Quinn} } @article {6666, title = {Transitions in employment, morbidity, and disability among persons ages 51-61 with musculoskeletal and non-musculoskeletal conditions in the US, 1992-1994.}, journal = {Arthritis Rheum}, volume = {42}, year = {1999}, month = {1999 Apr}, pages = {769-79}, publisher = {42}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVE: To provide estimates of the prevalence of musculoskeletal conditions in a sample of persons ages 51-61 living in the community in the US in 1992, to indicate the incidence of such conditions between 1992 and 1994, and to describe the proportion of individuals with these conditions who developed or recovered from disability and who left and entered employment during this time.

METHODS: The estimates were derived from the Health and Retirement Survey, consisting of data on a national probability sample of 8,739 persons, ages 51-61, who were interviewed in the community in 1992 and reinterviewed in 1994.

RESULTS: In 1992, 62.4\% of persons (14.4 million) between the ages of 51 and 61 years reported at least 1 musculoskeletal condition; the rate increased to 70.5\% by 1994. More than 40\% of persons with musculoskeletal conditions reported disability, which was almost 90\% of all persons with disability in this age group. Persons with musculoskeletal conditions had lower employment rates, were less likely to enter employment, and were more likely to leave employment compared with persons without these conditions. High rates of disability account for much of these differences.

CONCLUSION: Musculoskeletal conditions affected more than two-thirds of persons ages 51-61 and accounted for all but 10\% of those with disabilities. The prevention of disability among such persons should improve their employment prospects.

}, keywords = {Chronic disease, Disability Evaluation, Disabled Persons, Employment, Female, Humans, Incidence, Male, Middle Aged, Morbidity, Musculoskeletal Diseases, Prevalence, Retirement, United States}, issn = {0004-3591}, doi = {10.1002/1529-0131(199904)42:4<769::AID-ANR22>3.0.CO;2-M}, author = {Yelin, Edward and Laura S. Trupin and Sebesta, D.S.} } @article {6608, title = {Life transitions and health insurance coverage of the near elderly.}, journal = {Med Care}, volume = {36}, year = {1998}, month = {1998 Feb}, pages = {110-25}, publisher = {36}, abstract = {

OBJECTIVES: This study addresses three issues. (1) What are demographic wealth, employment, and health characteristics of near-elderly persons losing or acquiring health insurance coverage? Specifically, (2) what are the effects of life transitions, including changes in employment status, health, and marital status? (3) To what extent do public policies protect such persons against coverage loss, including various state policies recently implemented to increase access to insurance?

METHODS: The authors used the 1992 and 1994 waves of the Health and Retirement Study to analyze coverage among adults aged 51 to 64 years.

RESULTS: One in five near-elderly persons experienced a change in insurance coverage from 1992 to 1994. Yet, there was no significant change in the mix of coverage as those losing one form of coverage were replaced by others acquiring similar coverage.

CONCLUSIONS: Individuals whose health deteriorated significantly were not more likely than others to suffer a subsequent loss of coverage, due to substitution of retiree or individual coverage for those losing private coverage and acquisition of Medicaid and Medicare coverage for one in five uninsured. State policies to increase access to private health insurance generally did not prevent individuals from losing coverage or allow the uninsured to gain coverage. Major determinants of the probability of being insured were education, employment status of person and spouse, and work disability status. Other measures of health and functional status did not affect the probability of being insured, but had important impacts on the probability of having public coverage, conditional on being insured.

}, keywords = {Death, Employment, health policy, Health Services Research, Health Status Indicators, Humans, Insurance Coverage, Life Change Events, Medicaid, Medically Uninsured, Medicare, Middle Aged, Retirement, Spouses, United States}, issn = {0025-7079}, doi = {10.1097/00005650-199802000-00002}, author = {Frank A Sloan and Conover, C.J.} } @article {6590, title = {Employee benefits, retirement patterns, and implications for increased work life.}, journal = {EBRI Issue Brief}, year = {1997}, month = {1997 Apr}, pages = {1-23}, publisher = {No. 184}, abstract = {

This Issue Brief examines why policymakers are concerned about the trend toward early retirement and how it relates to Social Security, Medicare, and employee health and retirement benefits. It reviews the rationale for the effects of economic incentives on early retirement decisions and includes a summary of empirical literature on the retirement process. It presents data on how employee benefits influence workers{\textquoteright} expected retirement patterns. Finally, it examines the implications of public policies to reverse early-retirement trends and raise the eligibility age for Social Security and Medicare. An employee Benefit Research Institute/Gallup survey indicates that there is a direct link between a worker{\textquoteright}s decision to retire early and the availability of retiree health benefits. In 1993, 61 percent of workers reported that they would not retire before becoming eligible for Medicare if their employer did not provide retiree health benefits. Participation in a pension plan can be an important determinant of retirement. Twenty-one percent of pension plan participants planned to stop working before age 65, compared with 12 percent among nonparticipants. Workers whose primary pension plan was a defined benefit plan were more likely to expect to stop working before age 65 (23 percent) than workers whose primary plan was a defined contribution plan (18 percent). Expected income replacement rates effect retirement patterns, indicating that as the expected replacement increases, the probability of expecting to stop working before age 65 increases. Twenty-two percent of workers with an expected income replacement rate below 60 percent expected to stop working before age 65, compared with 29 percent for those in the 60-69 percent replacement range, and 30 percent for those in the 70-79 percent replacement range. Workers expecting to receive retiree health insurance are more likely to expect to stop working before age 65 than workers who do not expect to have retiree health insurance. Twenty-one percent of workers with retiree health insurance expected to stop working before age 65, compared with 12 percent of workers not expecting to receive retiree health insurance. The Social Security Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) program depends on obtaining sufficient revenue from active workers{\textquoteright} payroll taxes to fund the benefits received by retired beneficiaries. Funding the program in the past was in large part effortless because of the relatively large number of workers per retiree. Today, funding the program is a greater challenge because the ratio of workers to retirees has fallen. Policymakers have been able to agree that reform of the program is necessary for its survival; however, the debate over options to reform the program is just beginning, and it is likely to be a long time before a consensus emerges.

}, keywords = {Age Factors, Aged, Employment, Female, Health Benefit Plans, Employee, Health Status Indicators, Humans, Male, Medicare, Middle Aged, Pensions, Private Sector, Retirement, Social Security, United States}, issn = {0887-137X}, url = {https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10166809}, author = {Fronstin, Paul} } @article {6545, title = {Disentangling the effects of disability status and gender on the labor supply of Anglo, black, and Latino older workers.}, journal = {Gerontologist}, volume = {36}, year = {1996}, month = {1996 Jun}, pages = {299-310}, publisher = {36}, abstract = {

Utilizing data from the 1991 Health and Retirement Study Early Release File, this article examines the effects of disability status on labor force participation and earnings of preretirement workers aged 50 to 64. Results from our hierarchical regression models suggest that poor health and the presence of a work disability significantly reduced the labor force participation and earnings of older men and women. These analyses also suggest that economic well-being was constrained by the costs associated with additional "minority statuses." For example, the odds of being employed were reduced by approximately 46\% for black men with disabilities. Further, the earnings of black men were 17\% lower than the earnings of their nondisabled counterparts.

}, keywords = {Black or African American, Disabled Persons, Employment, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Theoretical, Multivariate Analysis, Sex Factors, United States, White People}, issn = {0016-9013}, doi = {10.1093/geront/36.3.299}, author = {Santiago, A.M. and Clara G. Muschkin} } @article {6555, title = {The extent of private and public health insurance coverage among adult Hispanics.}, journal = {Gerontologist}, volume = {36}, year = {1996}, month = {1996 Jun}, pages = {332-40}, publisher = {Vol. 36}, abstract = {

Data from the Health and Retirement Survey reveal extremely low levels of health insurance coverage among Hispanics and, especially, among Mexican Americans. The data reveal that this lack of insurance is associated with lower rates of employer-based and privately purchased coverage. Even after controlling for a large number of insurance-related factors, Hispanics have rates of health insurance coverage that are lower than those of either non-Hispanic blacks or whites. This serious lack of health insurance coverage among preretirement-age Hispanics has serious implications both for health, because the lack of insurance represents a major barrier to health care, and for the adequacy of retirement coverage, because private insurance represents an important supplement to Medicare.

}, keywords = {Adult, Aged, Employment, Female, Health Services Accessibility, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Insurance, Health, Male, Medical Assistance, Middle Aged, Multivariate Analysis, United States}, issn = {0016-9013}, doi = {10.1093/geront/36.3.332}, author = {Ronald J. Angel and Jacqueline L. Angel} } @article {6551, title = {The role of ethnicity in the disability and work experience of preretirement-age Americans.}, journal = {Gerontologist}, volume = {36}, year = {1996}, month = {1996 Jun}, pages = {287-98}, publisher = {36}, abstract = {

Using the 1992 HRS, this study examines the effects of social and demographic risk factors, including ethnicity, as well as health and job characteristics on disability and work status among 8,701 preretirement-age Americans with work history. Analytic results indicated that non-Anglo ethnicity was not a significant predictor of disability status but that being African American was a strong significant predictor of being a past versus current worker. The primary predictors of disability and work status were health behaviors, effects of health conditions, job characteristics, and workplace adaptations, factors that lend themselves to policy manipulation.

}, keywords = {Activities of Daily Living, Analysis of Variance, Disabled Persons, Employment, ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Odds Ratio, Regression Analysis, Risk Factors, United States}, issn = {0016-9013}, doi = {10.1093/geront/36.3.287}, author = {Linda A. Wray} } @article {6524, title = {Labor force dynamics of older men.}, journal = {Econometrica}, volume = {62}, year = {1994}, month = {1994 Jan}, pages = {117-56}, publisher = {62}, abstract = {

"This paper describes and analyzes movements of older men among labor force states [in the United States] using quarterly observations derived from the Retirement History Survey (RHS)." The results indicate "substantial undercounts in the biannual data, indicating that the prevalence of labor force movements at older ages has been underestimated previously.... The results show that labor force dynamics at older ages are important, including duration and spell occurrence dependence, and work experience effects. These effects are robust to nonparametric controls for unobserved heterogeneity. The estimates indicate that social security benefits have strong effects on the timing of labor force transitions at older ages, but that changes in social security benefit levels over time have not contributed much to the trend toward earlier labor force exit."

}, keywords = {Americas, Developed Countries, Economics, Employment, Financial Management, Financing, Government, Health Workforce, North America, Retirement, Social Class, Social Security, Socioeconomic factors, United States}, issn = {0012-9682}, url = {https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12290260}, author = {David M. Blau} }